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英语语法总结(整理版)

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来源:https://www.bjmy2z.cn/gaokao
2020-10-21 03:27
tags:英语语法学习

压抑是什么意思-十字路口的英文

2020年10月21日发(作者:祁思禹)


英语语法总结全集(By Eleanor 灿灿)
语法讲座一:名词和主谓一致
语法讲座二:动词的时态与语态
语法讲座三:情态动词
语法讲座四:代词
语法讲座五:形容词和副词
语法讲座六:分词
语法讲座七:动名词
*动名词与现在分词用法的区别
语法讲座八:不定式
语法讲座九:反意疑问句和倒装句
语法讲座十:连词和状语从句
语法讲座十一:名词性从句
语法讲座十二:定语从句
*关于非限定性定语从句
*限制性和非限制性定语从句的区别
语法讲座十三:虚拟语气



























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语法讲座一:名词和主谓一致
一、 名词的分类
英语中名词主要可以分为可数名词和不可数名词。
1.可数名词
可数名词一般都有单复数。单数时,名词前可加不定冠词aan;复数时,前面可加
数词,名词本身要改 成复数形式。
可数名词的复数有规则和不规则两种变化。规则的名词,只要在单数名词之后加 “s”,
“es”或去“y”加“ies”就行,如:an umbrella, twelve umbrellas;a factory, three factories。
不规则的名词变化则要靠积累记忆,如:a mouse, ten mice;a policeman, six policemen。
有少数可数名词,如sheep,works(工厂),Chinese等,它们的单复数同形:a sheep,
four sheep;a chemical works, five chemical works。
此外,还有一些可数名词只有复数形式,如clothes ,trousers,cattle,police,people(人,
人民)等。
英语名词中还有一些合成词,它们的复数形式有三种可能:1)后面的部分变成复数
形式:grown- ups,boy students,grandchildren。2)前面的部分变成复数形式:passers- by,
lookers-on,sons-in-law。3)前、后都变成复数形式:men doctors,women drivers。
2.不可数名词
不可数名词没有 单复数的变化,前面也不能加aan,或数词。但是我们可以用量词
来表示不可数名词的数量,单复数表 现在量词上,如:a piece of paper;two pieces of paper。
在有些情况下,不可数名词也可用aan,表“一种”“某种”、的意思,如have a wonderful
time,receive a good education,be made into a fine paper。
有时为了表示量大,不可数名词的后面也可加“s”,如sands,ashes,waters等。
但是我们在学习不可数名词的时候,特别要记住英语中有一些名词,它们无论在什
么情况下,前面都不能 用aan,后面也不可加“s”,如weather,information,等。
3.有的名词既可是可数名词,也可是不可数名词
英语中有相当一部分的名词,既可 以是可数,也可以是不可数,它们的意义有时略
有不同,有时则完全不同。如:difficulty, success, time, work,paper,glass,等。
4.用于表示可数与不可数名词的数量“多”“少”的常用词和词组
跟可数名词连用的如:few, a few, many。
跟不可数名词连用的如:little, a little, much。
可数与不可数都能用的是:a lot of , plenty of。

二、主谓一致
1.通常被看作单数的主语部分
1)不定式、动名词和主语从句。
eg.. To see is to believe.
Seeing is believing.
What he said was different from what he did.
2)表示“时间”“距离”“金钱数量”的名词。
eg. Twenty years is quite a long time.
10 kilometers doesn’t seem to be a long distance to Mira.
300 dollars is too much for this old coin.
3)数学式子。
eg. Two plus five is seven.

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4)书报杂志、国家、单位的名字。
eg. The Times is published daily.
The United States is a big country.
5)前面用a kind of, a sort of或this kind of, this sort of等词组的名词。
eg. This kind of tree(s) often grows well in warm weather.
6)代词either, neither作主语。
eg. Either of the plans is good.
Neither of them was carrying a weapon.
7)many a more than one 加单数名词,或one out of加复数名词作主语。
eg. Many a young man has tried and failed.
More than one employee has been dismissed.
One out of ten thousand computers was infected with the virus.
2.通常被看作复数的主语部分
1)一些只有复数的名词如clothes, trousers, police等。
eg. These trousers are dirty.
但要注意比较:A new pair of trousers is what you need。
2)代词both作主语。
eg. Both of them have received high education.
3.需要进行分析才能确定的主语部分
1)代词all, some,作主语。
所代的名词是可数名词,就看作复数;是不可数名词,就看作单数。
eg. All is ready. (= Everything is ready.)
All are present. (= All the peoplestudents... are present.)
2)a lot of, lots of, plenty of, some, any, 20% of, half of...等词组作主语。
所修饰的名词是可数名词,就看作复数;是不可数名词,就看作单数。
eg. 70% of the surface of the earth is covered with water.
90% of the graduates from the high school go to university.
3)关系代词who, which, that作主语。
由先行词决定单、复数。
eg. The student who is talking with the principal is Tom.
The students who have chosen physics will have a test tomorrow.
但要注意one of ...与only one of...所修饰的先行词。
eg. He is one of the students in our class who have been to Beijing.
He is the only one of the students who has been to London.
4)一些表示集体意义的名词如family, team, class等。
当这些名词强调的是一个整体时,看作单数;当它们强调的是这个集体中的成员时,
看作复数。
eg. Happy families are all alike; every unhappy family is unhappy in its own way.
My family are all early risers.
4.出现在句首,用连词或介词连接的两个名词或词组
1)用both...and...连接的两个名词看作复数。
Both Kate and Jean are football players.
2)用or, either...or..., neither...nor..., not only...but also...连接的两个名词,由靠近动词的
名词决定单复数。

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Either you or I am to go.
Not only the students but also the teacher has to observe the rules.
3)用as well as, (together) with, like, besides, but, except等连接的两个名词,由第一个名
词决定单复数。
eg. His eyebrows as well as his hair are now white.
No one but these two peasants has been there.
实际上这些都是介词短语提前,不是并列的主语。
4)用and连接的两个名词有几种情况:
a)看作复数。
eg. Tom and Mary are primary pupils.
b) 在有every ... and every ..., each ... and each ... 的时候;或用and连接的两个名词表
示的是一件东西或一个人时,看作单数。
eg. Every boy and every girl in our country has the right to go to school.
Bread and butter is what he eats for breakfast every day.


语法讲座二:动词的时态与语态
一、动词的时态
英语的动词可以有十六种变化 ,但现在常用的是十二种,其中有九种是高中学生必须
掌握的,还有三种只要理解。现以动词do为例, 十二种时态的形式列表如下:

现在
过去
将来
过去将

一般
dodoes
did
进行
isamare doing
waswere doing
be
完成
havehas done
had done
*shallwill
done

have
完成进行
havehas
doing


been
*had been doing
shallwill *shallwill
do doing
would do
(打星号的为理解项目)

1.一般现在时态
A)意义:现阶段经常反复发生的动作或现在的状态。
eg. He gets up at six every morning.
There is a big tree in the back yard.
B)常用的时间状语:always, often, usually, sometimes, seldom, never, every day, once a
week,等。
C)表示一种真理、自然规律等,在间接引语中也仍然用一般现在时态。
eg. The scientist explained that the earth goes round the sun, but no one believed him
then.
D)在时间、条件等状语从句中,代替将来时。
eg. If he is not busy, he will come to the party tomorrow.
E)注意第三人称单数时,动词后面要加“s”。
2. 一般过去时态
A)意义:过去的动作或状态。注意,即使是刚刚发生的事情,时间非常短,也要用过去

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时态。如:Wow! It’s you—Mary! I didn’t know you were here!
B)常用的时间状语:yesterday, last week, 3 years ago, just now, 等。
C)动词过去式的规则变化(加ed)和不规则变化。
3.一般将来时态
A)意义:将来要发生的动作或状态。
B)常用的时间状语:tomorrow, next moth, in two weeks, 等。
C)除了用shallwill之外的将来表达法:
a) isamare going to do,意为“打算、准备、马上就要”。
eg. It’s going to rain.
b) isamare to do,意为“(计划好安排好)要......”
eg. The new underground railway is to be opened to traffic next year.
c)isamare about to do,意为“马上就要”。
eg. Hurry up! The plane is about to take off.
d) 某些动词(主要是一些表示位置移动的动词)可用一般现在时态或现在进行时态表示
将来的动作。
eg. The train leaves for Beijing at 8:30 this evening.
He is going to London next week.
4.现在进行时态
A)意义:表示在说话的同时或最近一个阶段正在发生的动作。
B)常用的时间状语:now, these days, at present, at the moment, 等。
C)有时可以和always, constantly, forever等时间状语连用,表示说话人的某中特殊的感
情。
eg. He is always thinking of others.
Mrs Smith is constantly quarrelling with her neighbours.
D)有些瞬间动词可以用进行时态表示“马上就要......”
eg. The old man is dying.
E)英语中有些表示状态、感觉、心理活动的动词没有进行时态,如know, understand,
believe, like, love, see, hear, seem, 等等。
5.过去进行时态
A)意义:表示过去某个时刻正在做的动作。
B)常用的时间状语:this time yesterday, at 9:00 last night, 等。
C)有些动词(主要是一些表示位置移动等的动词和瞬间动词)的过去进行时态可以表示
过去将来的意义。
eg. I was told that she was leaving for Australia the next morning.
*6.将来进行时态
A)意义:表示将来某个时刻正在发生的动作。
B)常用的时间状语:this time tomorrow, at 9:00 next Sunday morning, 等。
eg. What will you be doing at 9:00 on June 7next year?
7.现在完成时态
A)意义:a. 表示过去某个时刻开始,一直持续到现在的动作或状态。(只有部分延续性动
词,如live, work, study, 等可以表示这一意义)
eg. I have lived in Shanghai since I was born.
He has been married for half a year.
b. 表示过去做过的某一个动作对现在的影响。

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eg. I have seen this film. It’s fantastic!
Jack is playing video games, because he has done his homework.
B)常用的时间状语:a. since 1990, for 9 years,等。
b. already, yet, just now, this week, never, ever, so far, up till now,
lately, in the pastlast few years, 等。
C)b组所表示的现在完成时态与过去时态的区别:虽然现在完成时态b组表示的动作也
是发 生在过去,但它强调的是与现在的关系,而过去时态只表示过去发生的动作,叙述一
个事实。试比较:
eg. 1) He went to Beijing two days ago.
He has gone to Beijing.
2) Henry lost his mobile phone yesterday, but found it later.
Henry has lost his mobile phone again.
D)瞬间动词要 表示“一直到现在”,不能直接用“完成时态加for”的方式,必须用其他句
型。
eg. 他离开上海已经三天了。
He has left Shanghai. He left three days ago.
He has been away from Shanghai for three days.
It is three days since he left Shanghai.
8.过去完成时态 A)意义:表示过去某个时刻之前所做的动作,即“过去的过去”。所以一般要用过去完成
时态的话 ,句子中或上下文一定有一个过去时态的动作或时间状语做比较,才能用。
eg. He had learned English before he went to Canada.
B)常用的时间状语:by the end of last year 等。
C)在用间接引语时,主句的动词是过去时态,用来替换直接引语中的过去时态或现在完
成时态。
eg. He asked the girl, “Where have you been?”
→ He asked the girl where she had been.
He said, “I cleaned the classroom yesterday.”
→ He said that he had cleaned the room the day before.
D)有些动词(如hope, wish, expect, think, intend, mean, suppose等)的过去完成时态可
表示过去事实上没有实现的希望、计划等。
eg. I had hoped to attend the party, but I was too busy.
*9.将来完成时态
A)意义:表示在将来某个时刻之前将会完成的动作。
B)常用的时间状语:by the end of next year等。
eg. You will have studied English for 10 years by the time you finish high school.
10.现在完成进行时态
A)意义:表示一个动作从过去开始,一直持续到现在,还会继续进行下去
B)常用时间状语:since ..., for ..., so far, up till now 等。
C)现在完成进行时态与现在完成时态的比较:
只有现在完成时态的第一种意 义的那些动词,它们的现在完成与现在完成进行两种时
态表示的意义相同,可以互换使用。
eg. I have studied here for 3 years. = I have been studying here for 3 years.
而其他的一些动词,使用两种时态,意义就各不相同了。

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试比较: The little boy has read the text.(小男孩已经读过课文了。)
The little boy has been reading the text.(小男孩一直在读课文。)
试翻译:1)从上午九点开始我就一直在做功课。
I have been doing my homework since 9 in the morning.
2)今天的功课我已经做好了。
I have done today’s homework.
*11.过去完成进行时态
意义:表示从过去某一时间开始的动作一直持续了一段时间再结束。(结束的时间点也在
过去)
eg. He had been searching for the watch for a half hour when we came back.
12.过去将来时态
意义:表示从过去某一时间看将要发生的动作或状态,一般多用在间接引语中。
eg. He told me that he would read the book a second time.

二、动词的语态
英语中的动词可分为及物动词和不及物动词,以及系动词。及 物动词有主动语态和被
动语态;不及物动词或动词词组(如happen, belong to, take place等)和系动词(如become,
seem, sound, look, taste,等)没有被动语态。
1.以动词do为例,被动语态的各种时态的表达方式如下表:

一般 进行 完成
现在
过去
将来
过去将

isamare done
waswere done
shallwill
done
be
isamare being done
waswere being done


havehas
done
been
had been done
shallwill be done
would be done
各种时态在助动词be上表示,动作由过去分词体现。
2.注意在动词词组变被动的时候,原来词组中的介词或副词不要漏掉。
eg. The villagers took good care of the wounded soldier.
→ The soldier was taken good care of by the villagers.
3.有些动词既是及物动词,又是不及物动词,这些动词比较少用被动语态。
eg. We begin our class at 8:00 every morning. → ? Our class is begun ... ?
Our class begins at 8:00 every morning.
4.有少数动词或动词词组可用主动形式,表示(从中文里我们所感觉的)被动意义。
eg. The book sells poorly.
His translation reads better than yours.
Who is to blame for the accident?

语法讲座三:情态动词
一、can, may, must
根据意思与习惯用法,我们可以把can, may, must分成以下两组用法,方便学习与掌
握。
1.第一组用法见下表(主要在初中的时候我们所掌握的):

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can
may
must
A) can
词义
能、会
可以
必须
肯定
can
may
must
否定
can’t
mustn’tmay not
needn’t
疑问
Can...?
May...?
Must...?
过去式
could
might
musthad to
a) can的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句:
eg. Computers can do a lot of things for us.
Money cannot buy everything.
Can you speak French?
I could run very fast when I was young.
b) can与be able to
can与be able to的意思相近,经常可以互换使用,但是be able to除了有一般现在与过
去时态之外,还有 将来、完成等时态,所以要表示将来能够或已经能够做什么事,就要用
be able to。
eg. You will be able to communicate with foreigners fluently if you finish the course.
The baby has been able to one or two simple sentences.
在用过去式的时候,could与was able to的意思不同,could表示的是“当时能够做
某事”的意思,而waswere able to表示的是“当时能够,并且成功地做到了”的意思。
试比较:
Einstein was able to flee Germany when Hitler came into power.
I could pass the examination, but I was too careless.
c) could在疑问句时用意表示请求,意义同can,是一种比较客气的表达方式。
eg. Could you give me a hand?
B) may
a) may的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句:
eg. You may choose anyone here you like.
—May I leave now? —Yes, of courseSure. Go ahead.
—No, you mustn’t. (注:口语中也能用cannot。)
I was told that the boss might come to the office before 9
b)mustn’t与may not.
mustn’t一般是说话人表示“不可以”或“禁止”,而may not一般是指按规定“不允
许”的意思。试比较:
You mustn’t leave the bike here.
The sign on the wall reads, “Visitors may not feed the animals in the zoo.”
c) may可放在句首,表示“祝愿”。
eg. May our friendship last forever.
d) might有时用在疑问句中,只是一种比may更客气一点,而非过去式。
eg. Might I have a few words with you, sir?
C) must
a) must的肯定、否定、疑问及过去式的例句:
eg. Everyone must obey the rules.
—Must I finish the work today? —Yes, you must.
—No, you needn’tdon’t have to.
He told me he musthad to see a doctor tomorrow morning.

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b) must与have to
用must更强调主观上“必须”,而have to 更强调客观上的“不得不”。
在间接引语中,主句动词是过去式时,用had to多,但must也可以用。
have to有现在、过去和将来三种时态。
c) must有时可以表示“偏偏”“非...不可”的意思。
eg. Why must you make such a mess when the visitors are coming?

2.第二组用法见下表:

词肯定 否定 疑问 过去式 进行式

can

能一





cannot Can...? can’t have done can’t be doing
may
must
may
must
may not



may have dong
must have done
may be doing
must be doing
a) can, may, must的第二种用法,是用来表示说话人的一种推测。其中 may与must的区
别其实是说话人对可能性大小所做判断的区别,觉得可能性大,就用must,可 能性小,就
用may。而can与may, must是肯定、否定、疑问分工的不同。
现在时举例:
—Can Tom be in the classroom?
—Yes, he must be there.
或—Yes, he may be there, but I’m not quite sure.
或—No, he can’t be there, because he hasn’t come to school today.
过去时举例:
I must have been asleep. I didn’t hear your footsteps.
David became angry at the meeting. He may have misunderstood what I meant.
James can’t have forgotten the examination yesterday. There must have been
something wrong with him, I believe.
b)表示可能性的否定句中有时也可用may,但意思与cannot有所不同。may not一般解
释为“可能不”,而cannot解释为“不可能”
c)表示可能性,也可以 用might和could,但并非may和can的过去式,而是表示说话人
觉得可能性实在是比较小 了,有虚拟的意味。跟may与can一样,might用在肯定句,could
用在否定句和疑问句。 might do的过去式是might have done,could的过去式是could have
done。
eg. —Could it be Susan at the door? —Yes, it might be her.(现在口语中也可用could be
回答)
*d) could have done也可以用在肯定句里,表示过去有这种可能,但事实上没有发生(虚
拟语气的用法)。
eg. It was dangerous to do so. You could have killed yourself!
二、shall, will, would
1.用在一般疑问句中,表示征求对方的意见。第一、第三人称用shall,第二人称用will
或 would。

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eg. Shall I turn on the TV?
Shall my brother go with us?
WillWould you do me a favour?
2.shall与第二、第三人称连 用,用在肯定、否定句中,表示“命令、允诺、警告、威胁,
及说话人的意愿和决心”。
eg. You shall do it at once!
He shall have the money when he finish his work on time.
You shall fail if you don’t work hard.
If Shylock breaks the law, everything he has shall be taken away from him.
3.will在陈述句中可 用于任何人称,表示“意愿、意志、决心”等。有时也可用在条件
句中。
eg. I will help you at any time if necessary.
The captain will land you safe in Liverpool, if you will be man.
4.will和would可以表示习惯性反复发生的动作,或在 某一条件下,一定会发生的动作。
这时,will一般指“现在”,would一般指“过去”。
eg. Oil will float on water, because it is lighter.
He would take a walk after supper when he lived here.
上面例句中的would可以用used to来替换。used to也表示“过去常常”,但used to
还隐含了“现在不再这样了”的意思。而would则没有这种意思。
eg. He used to smoke, but he has given it up now.
三、shouldought to
1.可以表示一种必要性、义务,解为“应当、应该”。 可以与任何人称连用,并用在肯
定、否定、疑问句中。但疑问句时用should更多一些。
eg. You shouldought to pay more attention to your spelling.
2.可以表示一种推测,解为“应该是”。用于任何人称的肯定、否定、疑问句。 它还有
进行和完成两种形式:shouldought to be doing(对现在正在进行的动作的推测)和
shouldought to have done(表示与过去的事实相反,“本来应该”的意思)。
eg. They should be here by now.
The students should be doing the experiment in the lab.
You should have come here ten minutes earlier.
3.should有时可以表示说话人惊讶的感觉,解为“竟然”。
eg. I have never imagined that he should say so at the meeting.
四、need和dare
need和dare两词,都既可作为 情态动词,又可作为实意动词,所以复习的重点是分
清在句子中它们分别是哪种动词。
1.need解为“需要、必须”。
A) 作为情态动词时,多用于疑问句和否定句。
eg. —Need I do it again? —No, you needn’t.
注意:与Must I do it again?的意思相近,但用nee d问,问的人一般希望得到的是否
定的回答;而用must问,问话的人一般希望得到的是肯定回答。
B) 作为实意动词,可用于各种句型,是及物动词,可以跟名词做宾语。
eg. We need another five workers to do the work.
C) needn’t have done与didn’t need to do的区别
needn’t have done和didn’t need to do分别是情态动词用法与实意动词用法的过去形

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式,但是所表示的意义不同。needn’t have done意思是“本来不必”,言下之意是“做了不
必要做的事了”;而didn’t need to do意思是“当时不必要”,言下之意是“当时不必要,因
此可能就没有做”。
试比较:She was too nervous to reply, but fortunately she didn’t need to say anything.
她紧张得无法答复,但幸运的是,她那时什么也不必说。
You needn’t have mentioned it to him, because he had been told everything
before.
你本来不必跟他提这件事的,之前已经有人把一切都讲给他听了。
2.dare解为“敢”。
A) 作为情态动词时,多用于疑问句和否定句。
eg. Dare you say that to your boss?
The little boy dare not face his teacher.
但是dare的固定词组“I dare say...”,用在肯定句中。
eg. He’ll come again, I dare say.
注意:dare作为情态动词时,它的过去式是dared。
eg. They dared not laugh in front of their manager.
B)作为实意动词,dare可以用在各种句型里。
但是注意在否定句里,有时后面的不定式的to可以省略。
eg. They didn’t dare (to) laugh in front of their manager.

语法讲座四:代词
一、人称代词、物主代词和反身代词
1.人称代词的主格、宾格和所有格
作主语时用主格,做宾语和表语时用宾格,作定语时用所有格。
形容词性的所有格和名词性的所有格:如my和mine,your和yours等。
eg. Your school is so different from ours (= our school).
2.英语中第一、第二、第三人称代词在句子中的排列次序:单数时为you, he and I;复
数时为we, you and they。
3.it用于指人的情况:
A) —Who is itthat speaking? —It’s Mary speaking.
B) —What’s wrong with the baby? —It’s crying loudly.
4.双重所有格的用法
在英语中经常会碰到双重所有格的情况,如a friend of mine,the invention of his等,
这种表达法的意思与my friend, his invention基本相同,只有细微的差别。
另外,名词也有双重所有格的表达法,如a friend of my father’s, the invention of
Professor Brown’s等。
5.在表示宾语的身体部位的名词前,一般用定冠词the代替所有格。
试比较:The policeman caught the thief by the arm.
The young lady carried a small baby in her arm.
6.We students与Our students的区别
We student s中文为“我们学生”,“学生”是“我们”的同位语,用这一词语的时候,
说话人是学生。而Our students其实是“我们的学生”,说话人不是学生。当然,用We students
的时候,We students必须是主语,如果是宾语,则用us students。
eg. We students should learn more than book knowledge at school.

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Good teachers always bear us students in mind.
7.反身代词的用法
A)作宾语
eg. We must learn to adjust ourselves to the new situation.
注意反身代词与代词宾格作宾语的区别:
eg. Jane’s mother stared at her in the mirror. (Jane的母亲望着镜子中的Jane。)
Jane’s mother stared at herself in the mirror. (Jane的母亲望着镜子中的自己。)
试译:请好好保重。
Please take good care of yourself.
在幼儿园里,老师会很好地照顾你的。
Teachers will take good care of you in the kindergarten.
B)用作同位语,强调主语或宾语
eg. I myself would never do such a thing. (= I would never do such a thing myself.)
We talked with the mayor himself.
C)反身代词的一些词组
by oneself 单独,独自 eg. He finished the task by himself.
for oneself 为了自己 eg. She cooked a meal for herself.
between ourselves 就我们之间 eg. This is a secret between ourselves.
teach oneself sth. 自学... eg. Lenin taught himself English when he was in Siberia.
seat oneself = be seated eg. He seated himself at the back of the room.
devote oneself to = be devoted to 献身于
二、指示代词
1.this, these经常指下面要讲的东西,而that, those经常指前面讲过的东西。
eg. He always begins his story like this: “Once upon a time, there was a ...”
He was ill. That’s why he didn’t come.
2.that与those可以指代前面提到的名词,经常在比较级的句子中出现。
eg. The boy told me his story and also that of his sister’s.
Weather in Shanghai is warmer than that in Beijing.
The products produced this year are different from those produced last year.
3.this与that可用作副词,放在形容词或副词前,意思相当于so。
eg. I didn’t expect the exam would be this easy.
I can only go that far, to the riverside.
三、不定代词
1.one
one只能指代可数名词的单数形式,它与it的不 同之处是it代替前面所提到的名词,
是特指的,也就是前面提到的同一件东西,而one代替前面所提 到的名词,但它是一种泛
指,即是这一类东西中的任何一个。试比较:
I have lost my cell phone and I have to buy one (= a cell phone).
I have bought a new cell phone. I bought it in Hong Kong.
2.any, some, anyone, someone, anybody, somebody, anything, something
A)any一般用在否定句,疑问句与条件状语从句中。
eg. —Have you any questions? —No, I haven’t any.
Please buy some apples if there are any.
any也可以用在肯定句中,表示“任何一个”的意思。

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eg. This is common knowledge. Any pupil knows it.
B)some一般用在肯定句中,但可以用在一种表示邀请的疑问句中。
eg. Would you like to have some drinks? (= Have some drinks, please.)
试比较:Have you bought any drinks?
some有时还可以解释为“某个”的意思,相当于certain。
eg. I have read it in some magazine. (= in a certain magazine.)
C)anyone, someone, anybody, somebody都是指人,anything, something都是指物。无论
是指人还是指物,都是单数性质。
3.another与the other等的用法见下表:

单数 复数
泛指
特指
another = another one
the other = the other
one
other ones = others
the other ones =the others
eg. I don’t like the colour of the shirt. Will you please show me another (one shirt)?
There were only two shirts left in the shop. I didn’t like the blue one. So I took the
other.
We have been told that only three of us have passed the exam, and the others have to
do it again next week.
There are many children in the park. Some are singing, others are dancing.
4.each与every
each相当于形容词或名词,而every相当与形容词。
each指两个或两个以上的“每一个”,every指三个或三个以上的“每一个”。
用each的时候,常可强调“各不相同”,而用every时,常强调“全部都”。
eg. Each of the hats cost 30 dollars. (= The hats cost 30 dollars each.)
There are shops on each side of the street.
At the meeting, each student expressed his or her own idea.
Every one of the students agreed with me.
5.everyone与every one
everyone只指人,同everybody。
every one既可指物,也可指人,指人时只用在of短语之前。
eg. No one is absent today. Everyone is here.
All the pictures are beautiful. I like every one of them.
6.all与both;any与either;none与neither
这三对代词的区别是一样的,在与指代数量上的不同。all, any, none都是指代三个或三
个以上,both, either, neither都是指代两者。
eg. All the students like my idea.
Both his parents are ordinary workers.
There are many books in our library. You can borrow any of them.
I have two dictionaries. You may take either one.
None of my classmates will go there with me.
Neither of his two brothers could help him during that time.
7.no one, nobody, nothing和none。
no one = nobody,都是指人;nothing指物;none既可指人,也可指物。
no one, nobody, nothing都是单数性质,none作主语,如指代不可数名词,看作单数,

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如果指代可数名词,既可看作单数,也可看作复数。
在作否定回答时,用none回答有针对性的人或东西,用no one, nobody, nothing回答
无针对性的人或东西。
eg. —Who did you see in the office? —No one Nobody.
—Is there anything in the room? —Nothing..
—Is there any water in your bottle? —None.
—How many students have been chosen in your class this time? —None.
8.not与all, both, every连用
not与all, both, every连用时都是部分否定,意思是“不全是”。
eg. All that glitters is not gold.
Not every student can solve the problem.
Both of his parents are not at home, today.
试析:
Don’t spit _everywhere___ (anywhere everywhere).


语法讲座五:形容词和副词
一、形容词、副词的比较级与最高级
1.形容词和副词的比较级与最高级的变化
形容词和副词的比较级与最高级的变化分规则和不规则两种情况。
规则的变化,短的词(单音 节及部分双音节的词)一般是在词尾加“er”或“est”(其中
重读闭音节要双写最后的辅音字母; e结尾只要加“r”或“st”;“y”加辅音结尾的去“y”
加“ier”或“iest”)如:bi g, bigger, biggest;late, later, latest;early, earlier, earliest等,较
长的词(部分双音节及多音节的词)在前面加上more或 most,如:careful, more careful, most
careful;clearly, more clearly, most clearly等。
不规则变化的词为:good, well, bad, badly, ill, many, much, little, old, far。变化见下表:
原级
good, well
bad, badly, ill
many, much
little
old
far
比较级
better
worse
more
less
older, elder
farther, further
最高级
best
worst
most
least
oldest, eldest
farthest, furthest

2.常用的比较级、最高级句型
A) 用原级形容词、副词的句型:
a) as... as...“和......一样......”
eg. Try to make as few mistakes as you can.
He speaks English as fluently as you.
b) not asso... as... “不如.......那样......”
eg. People’s brains cannot work as fast as computers.
c)在以上两个句型中,我们还可以加上“倍数”“分数”“百分数”等词。
eg. Tibet is twice as large as Texas. (= Tibet is twice the size of Texas).
My handwriting is not half so good as yours.

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B) 用比较级形容词、副词的句型:
a) ...er than... more ... than... “比......更......”
eg. It’s cheaper to eat at home than in the restaurant.
注意:用比较级句型的时候,比较的对象必须是同类事物。在汉语中, 我们常看到“上
海的天气比北京热”,这样的句子,但在做翻译的时候就要注意,必须是同类作比较:
The weather in Shanghai is warmer than that in Beijing.
在比较级形容词和副词前,还可以用一些副词或短语修饰,如:much, far, even, still, a
lot, a little, a bit, rather, slightly, *many等。
eg. Your argument is far more persuasive than his.
这些修饰语中的many只用在more +可数名词之前,表“多得多”之意,如many more
students。而要表示“多得多”的不可数的东西,则要用much more。
还可以用“倍数(如three times)”,“数词+量词(如two degrees或five hours等)”来修
饰。除此之外,还有by far也能修饰比较级的句型,但by far多用在比较级之后,个别情况
下,可用在比较级之前。
eg. He arrived here only 5 minutes earlier than you.
The new method is more complicated by far than the old one.
b) less ... than... “不如......那样......”
eg. In my opinion, the writer’s second book is less interesting than his first one.
c) ...er and ...er more and more “越来越......”
eg. With the final examination drawing nearer and nearer, Tim was getting more and
more nervous.
d) the ...er, the ...er the more ..., the more... “越......,就越......”
eg. The faster you solve the problem, the best result you will get.
e)带有than的句型,但不是比较的意思。
more than = not only eg. Students have learned more than book knowledge at school.
other than = 1)except eg. There’s nothing in his room other than books.
2)anything but eg. I couldn’t feel other than surprised.
3)different from eg. His tastes are quite other than mine.
rather than = instead of eg. The color seems green rather than blue.
I would sleep rather than see a film tonight.
f)在表示“两者之中比较......的那一个”时,比较级形容词前要用定冠词the。
eg. Bill is the taller of the twin brothers.
C)用最高级形容词、副词的句型:
a) the ...est most ... of in...
eg. China is one of the largest countries in the world.
b)可以用比较级的句型来表示最高级的意思:
eg. Tom is taller than anyone else any other one any of the others all the others in
our class.
No one is taller than Tom in our class.
I have never seen a better film than this one.
请注意在上面第一个例子中的other, else等的用法。试比较:
China is bigger than any other country in Asia.
China is bigger than any country in Africa.
c)在最高级形容词或副词前可以用序数词或very, much, by far等。

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eg. The Yellow River is the second longest river in China.
Among the candidates, John is the very youngest.
The Pacific is by far the largest ocean in the world.
d)在作比较的时候,最高级形容词前必须用定冠词或物主代词所有格、指示代词, 在最
高级副词的前面可用可不用。
eg. Don’t forget to wear theyour best clothes to the job interview.
He runs (the) fastest in our class.
但是有时候会看到在最高级形容词前不用定冠词的例子,这时,这个最高级其实不是
“最......” 的意思,而是“非常......”的意思。
eg. This is a most interesting film.

二、有关形容词的一些要点
1.作定语和作表语的形容词
英语中很多形容词都既可作定语,也可作表语,如kind,可以说She is a kind teacher,
或She is kind。但是有些形容词只能作表语,如很多a开头的形容词(afraid, alive, alone,
asleep, awake)以及glad, pleased, sorry, tired等。
有些形容词用作表语时的意思与用作定语时的意思不一样。试比较:
1)He is ill in bed.
Ill news runs apace(=quickly).
2) What’s your present address?
All the members were present at the conference.
*2.多个形容词修饰同一个名词的词序排列:
eg. a charming small round old brown French oak writing table
(描述性→大小→形状→新旧年龄→颜色→地方→物质材料→用途)
3.形容词和名词的正确搭配
eg. price (highlow); goods (cheapexpensive); population (large small); rain
(heavylight)
4.形容词作状语补语
形容词有时可以作句子的状语(也有的语法书上称之为补语)。
eg. The little girl went home, cold and hungry.
The captain promised to land the passengers safe.
5.一些由同一词根派生出来的形容词词义辨析
英语中根据构词法,经常可碰到一些由 同一词根派生出的不同的形容词,在学习掌握
的时候需要加以注意,不要混淆。
A) historic与historical
historic意思为“历史上有重大意义的”,historical意思为“历史的”。
eg. Waterloo is a historic battlefield, where Napoleon’s army was defeated.
Have you seen the historical film about Napoleon?
B) sensible与sensitive
sensible意思为“明智的”“合理 的”“可感觉到的”,sensitive意思为“敏感的”“神
经过敏的”。
eg. Surely it would be sensible to get a second opinion before taking any further
action.
There is a sensible increase in temperature because of the global warmth.

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This is such a sensitive issue that we should deal with it carefully.
C) imaginable, imaginary与imaginative
imagina ble意思是“能够想象的”“想象得出的”,imaginary意思是“想象(出来)
的”“虚构的 ”,imaginative是“富于想象力的”。
eg. The seven dwarfs tried every imaginable means, but couldn’t wake her up.
All the characters in the story are imaginary.
Jack was an imaginative child though he didn’t do well at school.

三、有关副词的一些要点
1.副词的位置
频度副词一般在动词“be”与助动词之后,行为动词之前.
eg. David is usually late.
He seldom comes early.
You can never imagine how embarrassed I was at that time!
修饰动词的副词经常在动词之后,有时也可放在句首。
eg. Though I did the exercise very carefully, I failed again.
Suddenly, a tall man appeared from behind the curtain.
表地点和时间的副词可放在句尾或句首。
2.与形容词同形的副词,以及词尾以ly结尾的副词
A)有些有ly结尾的副词经常可以有抽象的意义,而与形容词同形的副词表示的是比较
具 体的意义。如highhighly; deepdeeply; widewidely
eg. He can jump very high.
The principal speaks highly of your work.
B)有些词的意思完全不同如hardhardly; nearnearly; latelately; mostmostly,需要加
以注意。
3.一些常用副词的用法
A) very, much, very much与well的用法
very一般修饰形容词、副词和现在分词,如:very goodhardinteresting
much一般修饰比较级和过去分词,如:much faster respected
very much一般修饰动词,如:I love it very much.
well一般修饰worth doing与介词短语,如:well worth readingabove the trees
B) fairly与rather
fairly与rathe r都有“相当”的意思,但一般fairly修饰带有褒义的形容词或副词,含
有“正合适”,“恰当” 等的意义;而rather含有“过分”的意义,所以修饰带有贬义的形
容词和副词更多,如:fair ly warm, rather hot; fairly cool, rather cold; fairly easy, rather difficult
等。
C) nearly与almost
nearly与almost都可以解释为“几乎”,一般情况下 ,两个词经常可以互换,有人认
为用almost时,感觉上比nearly更接近一些。
eg. The work was almostnearly completed.
AlmostNearly all the Japanese eat rice.
在any及一些否定词no, none, never, nothing, nobody的前面,必须使用almost。
eg. Almost no one believed what he said.
固定词组not nearly的意思是“远远不(够)。”

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eg. There are not nearly enough people here to do the job.
I have 20 dollars, but that isn’t nearly enough for my journey fare.


语法讲座六:分词
一、分词的形式
1.现在分词与过去分词的主要区别
A)及物动词的现在分词与过去分词的区别
eg. The news excited the children.
→The news was exciting. The children were excited.
→ the exciting news the excited children
My teacher’s words encouraged me greatly.
→ My teacher’s words were encouraging. I was greatly encouraged.
通过上述例子,可以发现,及物动词的现在分词表示的是“主动”,它的过去分词是
“被动”。
试分析:tiring与tired
interesting与interested
pleasing与pleased
B)不及物动词的现在分词与过去分词的区别
eg. China is a developing country and the UK is a developed country.
developing:正在发展,发展中
developed:已经发展好的,发达的
试比较:boiling与boiled,falling与fallen,burning与burned。
通过上述例子,可以发现,不及物动词的现在分词表示的是“进行”,它的过去分词
是“完成”。
2.现在分词的四种形式
现在分词除了一般式之外,还有完成式和被动式,以动词do为例,现在分词的四种
形式见下表:
doing being done
having done having been done
A) doing:主动进行
eg. a)I hear someone singing an English song in the next room.
Last night, I heard someone singing an English song in the next room.
b) The man standing on the platform is waving his hand to us.
c) They stood by the roadside, begging.
doing所表示的动作与谓语动词同时发生,与逻辑主语是主动关系。
B) being done:被动进行
eg. The problem being discussed is very important.
The museum being built there will be open to the public next year.
being done所表示的动作与谓语动词同时发生,但与逻辑主语是被动关系。
C) having done:主动/完成
eg. Having done his homework, Tim played chess with his friends.
Having cleaned the classroom, I went home.
having done所表示的动作发生在谓语动词之前,与逻辑主语是主动关系。

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D) having been done:被动完成
eg. Having been surrounded by the flood for over a week, the villagers lacked food and
medicine.
Having been shown the library, the visitors were led to the audio-visual lab.
having been done所表示的动作发生在谓语动词之前,与逻辑主语是被动关系。
E) Conclusion:
现在分

doing (主动进
行)
having done (主动完
成)

being done (被动进
行)
having been done(被动完
成)
done (被动完
成)
过去分

having been done与done的区别:
试分析:Written in simple English, the book is easy to read.
Built more than 800 years ago, the Krimlin is the working place of the
Russian president.
Having been surrounded by the flood for over a week, the villagers lacked
food and medicine.
Having been shown round the library, the visitors were led to the audio-visual
lab.
过去分词所表示的动作也发生在谓语动词之前,与逻辑主语的关系也是被动,但它不 象
having been done强调两个动作先后发生,过去分词经常可表示一种完成的状态。
3.分词的否定形式:not +分词
eg. She remained silent, not knowing what to say.
Not hearing the bell, the teacher kept on teaching.

二、分词的功能
1.表语 (doing done)
eg. The situation is inspiring.
The little girl is charming.
He looks disappointed.
Nanjing Road is crowded at weekend.
Those days are gone forever.
2.宾语补足语 (doing done)
可以跟分词作宾语补足语的常用动词有see, look at, notice, watch, observe, hear, listen
to, feel, smell, have, get, set, leave, keep, make, find等。
eg. Mary heard someone knocking at the door.
I found him sittingseated at the back of the room.
I didn’t recognize him, because he had his hair cut.
Don’t worry. I’ll have the car waiting for you.
She saw her baby playing with their pet dog.
She saw a patient carried out of the room by the doctors.
The policeman noticed the small kitchen window broken.
*The teacher caught him cheating in the exam.

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*I won’t have you talking like that.
3.定语 (doing done being done)
分词作定语,如果只是单个的分词,一般放在名词前,如是词组,一般放在名词之后。
eg. He took a burning stick from the fire.
There was a lighted candle at the corner of the table.
We met a group of children training in the playground.
Mr Smith is a man greatly respected by his colleagues.
The house being repaired was on fire last night.
试分析:What I saw in the dark was a frightened face. (frightenedfrightening)
注意:现在分词作定语时,分词表示的动作是与句子谓语动词同时发生,不能表示
位于动词之前发生的动 作,如“我要跟那位打碎玻璃窗的男孩谈谈”就不能分词翻成“I’ll talk
with the boy breaking the window”,而要用定语从句“the boy who broke the window”。
有些分词还可放在形容词前,用法相当于一个副词,如burning hot, freezing cold,等。
4.状语 (doing done having done having been done)
分词(短语)经常用作时间、原因、条件及伴随状语。
eg. Hearing the news, they jumped for joy.
Having received the final medical check, the astronauts boarded the spaceship.
Having been operated on the leg, the patient was moved to the ward.

Being young, he was energetic.
Badly injured, the driver lost consciousness.
Having lived there for more than half a year, she is familiar with the city.

Given more time, I could do it better.
Heated for a while, water will turn into vapour.

They sat on the grass, looking at the setting sun.
Holding the million-pound note, he stood there dumbfounded.
分词作状语,分词短语前有时还可以用连词when, while, if, unless, once, until, though
等。
eg. If playing all day, you will waste your time.
Don’t mention it whenwhile talking with Mary.
He will not come unless invited.
Though warned of the danger, he still went skating on the ice.
Leave the chicken in the oven until cooked to a brown color.
有的分词短语已经相当于一个固定用语,如generally speaking, judging from..., talking
of...等,要靠平时注意和积累。
eg. Judging from his appearance, he can’t be over forty.
Generally speaking, boys are more interested in such activities than girls.
Talking of language learning, communication is of great importance.
注意:我们用分词作状语的时候,它的逻辑主语必须是句子的主语或分词前面的名词。
错句: Walking through the park, the flowers looked beautiful.
→Walking through the park, I saw some beautiful flowers.
错句:Running into the house, the door banged after the boy.

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→Running into the house, the boy banged the door.
5.分词独立结构(Absolute Construction)
A)Try to turn the following complex sentences into simple ones:
a) Because I had lost all my money, I had to give up my plan.
→Having lost all my money, I had to give up my plan.
b) When she was left alone in the room, she began to weep.
→Left alone in the room, she began to weep.
c) If time permits, I will show you round the campus.
→?Permitting, I will show you round the campus
X
→ Time permitting, I will show you round the campus.
当分词的逻辑主语与句子的主语不一致时,我们可以保留这个逻辑主语,这种“名 词+
分词”的结构,就是分词的独立结构。
eg. The work done, they set to clean the room.
= After the work was done, they set to clean the room.
There being no one in the room, I left a note on the desk.
=Since there was no one in the room, I left a note on the desk.
The last bus having gone, we had to walk home.
=Because the last bus had gone, we had to walk home.
试试看:
I saw a boy lay on the ground, his teeth ______(set), his eyes ______(look) upwards,
his right hand ______(clench) on his chest.
(set looking clenched)
B)分词的独立结构之前,有时还可以带有介词with。(with + noun + -ing -ed)
eg. The little boy called out to his mother, with tears running down his cheeks.
The old woman sat on the bed, with her legs crossed.
如果在with+分词独立结构中的分词是being的话,being经常省略。
eg. Don’t talk with your mouth (being) full.
She set out in the morning, with a heavy basket (being) on her back.


语法讲座七:动名词
一、动名词的形式
1.动名词的时态与语态形式
动名词的时态与语态形式与现在分词完全一样,以do为例,共有四种形式:
doing
having done
being done
having
done
been
注:正因为动名词和现在分词的形式一样,所以在我们的教科书与一些英语语法书中 ,
把动名词和现在分词统一称为- ing分词。现在为了方便学习与记忆,所以我们还是把动名词
专门列出进行分析讲解。
A)动名词的一般式doing
doing一般并不强调动作发生的时间,所以与谓语动词作 比较的话,这个动作可以在谓语
动词之前发生,也可以在谓语动词的同时发生,还可以在谓语动词之后发 生,甚至根本就

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不涉及到时间这个问题。
eg. He decided to give up smoking.
Reading a lot can help me to understand better.
The boy practices playing the piano every evening.
Smoking is harmful.
B)动名词的完成形式having done
having done所表示的动作都发生在谓语动词之前。
eg. He didn’t mention having met you before.
I have no idea of their having done such a thing.
The old teacher was given a medal for having completed sixty years of teaching.
Mrs. Curie was awarded the Nobel Prize for having discovered the element radium.
C)动名词的被动形式being done
being done所表示的是一个被动的动作。
eg. Mike came into the office without being asked.
The problem is far from being settled.
注:在一些特定的动词或词组后面,动名词用的是主动形式,但表示的是被动的意义,
如在want, need, require, be worth等词之后。
eg. The flower wants watering. (= to be watered)
The old clock needs oiling. (= to be oiled)
The problem requires considering again. (= to be considered again)
The book is worth reading. (= is worthy to be read)
D)动名词的完成被动形式having been done
having been done所表示的是一个发生在谓语动词之前的被动的动作。
eg. Tom was ashamed of having been scolded by the principal.
I still remembered having been taken to Suzhou by my mother when I was 5.
2.动名词的否定形式
动名词的否定形式就是在动名词之前加not。
eg. He insisted on Lisa’s not going there alone.
He was criticized for not having finished his homework.
3.动名词的复合结构
动名词的复合结构就是在动名词前用名词或代词的所有格:sb’s doing。这个所有格
通常就是这个动名词的逻辑主语。
eg. Do you mind my opening the window?
Tom’s getting up early surprised his parents.
注1:如果这个动名词是作 宾语,那么我们还可以用宾格加动名词,而当动名词是作主
语时,就只能用所有格。如上面的第一个例子 就能改成:Do you mind me opening the window?
但第二个例子的Tom’s(或His)不能换成Tim(或Him)。
另外,如果这个动名词的逻辑主语是无生命的“物”时,我们通常也不用所有格。
eg. You can hear the noise of desks being opened and closed outside the school.
注2:并不是所有的动名词前都要加所有 格的,所以只有在需要时才用动名词的复合结
构。有时用与不用,意义是不同的。
试比较:Do you mind turning on the light?
Do you mind my turning on the light?
二、动名词的功能

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1.作主语
eg. Getting up early is a good habit.
Teaching English is my work.
Breathing became difficult when they reached the top of the mountain.
There is no joking about such matters.
动名词作主语时,也可以用it作形式主语,如:
It is no use crying over spilt milk.
It is a waste of time quarrelling with each other.
动名词与不定式都能作 主语,但动名词一般表示的是比较抽象的行为,或者目前的动
作,而不定式则往往用来表示具体的动作, 特别是将来的动作。
试比较:A) Smoking is not allowed in the library.
It’s not very good for you to smoke so much.
B) Building houses is their job. They are builders.
I am on duty today. To keep the classroom clean is my duty.
有的时候,选择动名词还是不定式作主语,要根据习惯搭配或者句子的平衡来定。
eg. A) It’s important to study English well.
It is no good reading without thorough comprehension.
B) Seeing is believing.
To see is to believe.
2.作表语
eg. His hobby is collecting stamps.
The real problem is getting to know the needs of the market.
动名词和不定式都能作表语,它们之间的区别与作主语时的区别相同。
试比较:His job is cleaning the toilets, but his dream is to be the manager of the company.
3.作定语
动名词作定语,一般放在被修饰词之前,主要用于讲清被修饰词的用途或目的。
eg. a sleeping bag = a bag for sleeping
drinking water = water for drinking
a smoking room = a room for smoking
动名词与现在分词都能作定语,但现在分词作定语时 ,往往用来表示所修饰名词的动
作或状态,与被修饰词是主谓关系。
eg. a sleeping lion = a lion that iswas sleeping
boiling water = water that iswas boiling
a smoking chimney = a chimney that iswas smoking
试比较:a dancing hall, a dancing girl
a swimming pool, the swimming dog
the waiting room, the waiting patients
Practice: Read the following short passage and try to find out the answer to the questions.
Some boys put up a notice outside their garden gate, which read:

NOTICE

If you are interested in water-sports, swimming, diving,

floating, etc., come and see the floating match here this

afternoon.

Admission 3 pence

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Some people paid their three pence and went inside. What did they expect to see? And
what do you think t they will see?

Key: They expected to see a match for floating. But all they saw was a match-stick floating in
a basin of water. (They expected to see a gerund and all they saw was a participle!)

4.作宾语
在英语中,动名词与不定式都能作宾语。根据词汇的惯用法,动名词作宾语可以分成
以下几种类型:
A)只用动名词,不能用不定式
在高考词汇为范围中,常见的只用动名词,不能用不定式作宾语的动词有admit, advise,
allow, appreciate, avoid, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape. excuse, fancy, finish, forbid,
imagine, keep, mind, miss, permit, practice, risk, suggest,等。
eg. I have just finished writing the letter.
You should avoid catching cold.
注:在以上动词中,我们不可以用不定式作宾语,并不 意味着我们不可以用不定式作它
们的宾补,如allow sb to do sth, advise sb to do sth等,都是用不定式作宾补的例子。
B)只用不定式,不能用动名词
常用的这类动词有:agree, decide, desire, expect, hope, offer, pretend, promise, refuse
等等。
eg. Karl Marx decided to study Russian when he was over fifty.
I hope to meet you soon.
C)既可用动名词,又可用不定式,而且意思也差不多
这类动词有:like, love, hate, prefer
eg. The boy likes playing to play video games.
注:如果讲到的是一贯的爱好等,用 动名词更多;而讲到某一次具体的活动,特别是有
将来意义时,用不定式多。也有一些特定的词组,一定 要用不定式。
eg. He likes playing football. But he would like to swim with his friends this afternoon.
She prefers riding a bicycle to taking a bus.
She prefers to take a bus rather than ride a bicycle.
除了以上动词之外,还有begin, start, continue, cease也具有同样的性质。
eg. The baby began crying to cry.
注:有的语法书上说,有三种情况下,begin等动词后不能用动名词(主语不是 “人”;
动词本身是进行时态;后接的是表示思维活动,精神状态等的动词如realize, understand)。
D) 既可用动名词,又可用不定式,但意思不同
这类动词有:remember, forget, regret, stop, go on, try, mean。
试比较. a) Please remember to wake me up at six tomorrow morning.
I remember seeing him somewhere before.
b) The child has forgotten to bring the book home.
The child will never forget visiting the museum at night.
c) I regret to tell you that he failed to pass the exam.
I regret telling you that he failed to pass the exam.
d) Please stop talking.

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They stopped to take a rest.
e) He thought for a while and went on telling the story.
After doing Exercise 1, they went on to do Exercise 2.
f) If you can’t solve the problem, why not try solving it in my way?
Try to get there on time no matter what happens.
g) Sorry, I didn’t mean to hurt your feeling.
Missing the train means waiting for another two hours.
注:既可用动名词,又可用不定式,但意思不同的词还有want, need, require。如 果它们
后面跟动名词的话,用的是主动形式,但事实是被动的含义,而用不定式,则主动形式表
主动意义,被动形式表被动意义。
还有help一词,在词组can’t help解释“忍 不住”时,后用动名词,在help解释“帮
助”时,后用不定式,而且to可以省略。
eg. She can’t help crying at the news.
Mary can’t help (to) do anything for us—she is only 5!
E)介词宾语
动名词经常作为介词的宾语,在复习的时候,特别要当心介词to后的宾语。
eg. He looks forward to seeing you again.
常用的以介词to结尾的词组有:beget used to, devote...to, lead to, look forward to, pay
attention to, object to, oppose to, stick to,accustom to 等。

*动名词与现在分词用法的区别
动词的- ing形式按功能可分为动名词和现在分词。动词的- ing形式何时为动名词,何时为现
在分词。首先,我们要从概念上区分。动词的-ing形式在起名词 作用时,称为动名词;用作
形容词或副词时,称为现在分词。其次,我们要从用法方面区分动词的- ing形式是动名词还
是现在分词。
一、动词的- ing形式用作主语时为动名词,现在分词不可以用作主语。
1.动名词用作主语.
Reading French is easier than speaking it. 阅读法文比讲法语容易。
Talking to him is talking to a wall. 和他说话等于对牛弹琴。
Smoking can cause cancer. 吸烟会致癌。
Growing roses is her hobby. 种玫瑰是她的爱好。
2.有时it作形式主语,把动名词主语放在句子后面
It’s nice seeing you again. 再次见到你太好了。
It was tiring driving from morning till night. 从早到晚开车很累人。
It’s a wonder meeting you here. 在这里碰到你真是奇迹。
It was a waste of time reading that book. 看那本书是浪费时间。
3. “There is + no”后可以用动名词作主语
There was no knowing what he could do. 他能做什么很难说。
There was no arguing with her. 没法和她争论。
二、动词的- ing形式用作宾语时为动名词,现在分词不可以用作宾语。
1.有许多动词可接动名词作宾语
I suggested bringing the meeting to an end. 我建议结束会议。
So you prefer living abroad? 这样说你更愿意住在国外?
He kept complaining. 他不停地抱怨。

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I finished reading the book last night. 这书我昨晚看完了。
2.有许多带介词的动词固定搭配接动名词作宾语
He has given up playing football. 他现在不踢足球了。
Prices keep on increasing. 价格不断上涨。
三、当动词的- ing形式用作状语时为现在分词,动名词不可以用作状语。
现在分词及其短语可以用作状语,表示时 间、原因、结果、条件、让步、方式或伴随情况
等。其动作可能发生在谓语之前或之后,也可能与谓语动 词的动作同时发生。
Climbing to the top of the tower, we saw a magnificent view.
我们爬到塔顶后,看到了一片壮丽的景象。(表时间)
Living in the country, we had few social engagements.
我们住在乡下,交际的机会很少。(表原因)
Having money, he will buy a bigger car.(表条件)
Knowing the secret, she would not tell me about it..(表让步)
The child fell, striking his head against the door and cutting it.
那孩子跌倒了,头碰在门上碰破了.(表结果)
He stood leaning against the wall. 他靠墙站着.(表方式或伴随情况)
四、动名词与现在分词都可以用作表语,当动词的- ing的作用相当于名词时为动名词。当动
词的-ing的作用相当于形容词时,动词的- ing为现在分词。
1.动名词用作表语
Her hobby is painting. 她的爱好是绘画。
Her job was tending the sheep. 她的工作是放羊。
The main thing is getting there in time. 首要的事是及时到达那里。
2.现在分词用作表语
The news is encouraging. 这消息令人鼓舞。
This story is very interesting. 这个故事很有趣。
The day was so charming. 天气真是好极了。
The difference was most striking. 差别很明显。
五、动名词与现在分词都可以用作定语
现在分词表示其所修饰的名词的动作,即: 现在分词与其所修饰的名词在逻辑上具有主谓关
系 。通常能改为一个定语从句。动名词则表示其修饰的名词的性质,或用途或功能. 两者在
逻辑上无主谓关系。因此,只能改为一个for加动名词的短语。
1.动名词作定语,动名词表性质或用途或功能。
swimming pool 游泳池 drinking water 饮用水
swimming suit 游泳衣 waiting room 候车室
sleeping bag 睡袋 parking lot 停车场
sleeping pill 安眠药 writing desk 写字桌
sewing machine 缝纫机 writing paper 信纸
operating table 手术室 checking account 活期账户
diving suit 潜水衣 reading room 阅览室
diving board 跳板 playing ground 运动场
washing machine 洗衣机 boxing competition 拳击比赛
washing powder 洗衣粉 speaking contest 演讲比赛
fishing pole 钓鱼杆 fishing line 钓鱼线
2.现在分词作定语

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developing countries 发展中国家 a booming town 日渐繁荣的城镇
growing doubts 越来越大的怀疑 the existing condition 现有条件
the remaining days 剩下的岁月 lasting peace 持久的和平
a falling star 流星 the leading newspapers 主要报纸
the ruling class 统治阶级 living things 有生命的东西
the ageing population 老化的人口 the rising generation 成长的一代
六、动名词与 现在分词都可以用作补语,但现在分词用作宾语补语时,与前面的宾语构成
复合宾语。
具有这种复合宾语的动词多为表示感觉的动词,如:smell, observe, watch, notice, look at,
listen to 等。另外,有些使役动词如have, set, get, catch, keep, leave等可以后面接含有现在
分词的复合宾语。 还有,作为宾语补语的现在分词有时前面可有as,前面的动词多用regard,
consider, describe, see, think of 等。现在分词用作主语补语 ,多用在被动结构中,与主语构
成复合主语。而动名词作补语对相应的动词却没这些规定。
1.动名词用作补语
I call this robbing Peter to pay Paul. 我管这叫做拆东墙补西墙。
(robbing是宾语补语)
This is called turning things upside down. 这叫做把事物颠倒了。
(turning 是主语补语)
2.现在分词用作补语
We found him waiting to receive us. 我们发现他等着欢迎我们。
We kept the fire burning all the time. 我们使火一直燃烧着。
They described the young man as having initiative and drive.他们说这青年积极肯干。
He was seen going upstairs. 有人看见他上楼。


语法讲座八:不定式
一、不定式的形式
1.不定式的时态与语态
不定式的时态与语态一共有六种形式,现以动词do为例,列表如下:
to do to be done
to have done
to be doing
to have been doing
to have been done


A)不定式的一般式to do
to do所表示的动作一般发生在谓语动词之后,但也可以是在谓语动词之前或与谓语动
词几乎同时发生。
eg. I have a lot of work to do.
To improve your English, you should practice reading aloud every day.
He seems to know the answer.
I’m glad to see you.
B)不定式的完成式to have done
to have done所表示的动作都发生在谓语动词之前。
eg. I am sorry to have brought you so much trouble.
She seems to have read the book.

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C)不定式的进行式to be doing
to be doing所表示的动作与谓语动词同时发生。
eg. It happened to be raining when I arrived.
The child pretended to be sleeping when his mother came in.
D)不定式的完成进行式to have been doing
to have been doing所表示的动作,是从谓语动词之前某一个时间开始,进行到谓语动词
所表示的时间。
eg. He is said to have been writing a play for months.
The man seemed to have been lying on the ground for a while.
E)不定式的一般被动式to be done
to be done所表示的动作是被动的意义,多为发生在谓语动词之后,但 有时也可以是在
谓语动词之前或几乎与谓语动词同时发生。
eg. The new underground railway is said to be opened to traffic at the end of this year.
It’s an honor for me to be asked to speak here.
注:有的时 候,不定式所表示的动作虽然有被动意义,但我们不用被动形式,仍然用主
动形式。这种现象主要在以下 几种情况下出现:
a)在一些形容词如easy, difficult, hard, nice, interesting, important, pleasant, dangerous,
heavy, light, fit之后。
eg. My bag is very heavy to carry.
The sentence is easy to understand.
The water is not fit to drink.
I found the text difficult to translate into Chinese.
这类的句子都可以用以it开头的句子来改写。如:It is heavy to carry my bag.
I found it difficult to translate the text into Chinese.
b)这个不定式与最近的一个名词或代词的关系是被动,但是在前面我们可以找到这个动
作的执行者。
eg. I have a lot of work to do.
Will you please give me some books to read?
试分析:I have five letters to type today.
I have five letters to be typed today.
c)在there be句型中的不定式,如果是被动的意义,我们可以用被动式,也可以用主动
式。
eg. There is nothing to do.
There is nothing to be done.
F)不定式的完成被动式to have been done
to have been done所表示的动作是被动意义,发生在谓语动词之前。
eg. He was proud to have been chosen captain of the team.
The book is said to have been translated into English.
2.不定式的否定形式
不定式的否定形式就是把not加在to之前。
eg. Take care not to catch cold.
The student pretended not to be listening.
They are said not to have finished the work now.
3.不定式的逻辑主语

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不定式的逻辑主语可以用for sb放在不定式之前。
eg. It’s not necessary for you to do so many exercises.
It’s important for us to master a foreign language.
二、不定式的功能
1.作主语
不定式作主语时一般都看成单数。
eg. To be an astronaut is his dream.
To make mistakes is human.
不定式作主语可以用it作形式主语,而把真实主语放在后面。
eg. It is nice to hear your voice.
It is impossible to live without air.
在作主语的不定式的前面还可以加上疑问词,如what to do, when to do, where to do,
以及whether to do等。(注意:没有if to do的说法!)
eg. What to do next has not been decided yet.
Whether to carry out the project will be discussed later.
注:不定式作主语与动名词作主语的区别我们已经在学习动名词时讨论过了,此处不再
重复。
2.作表语
eg. His ambition is to open a shop of his own.
His theory proved to be true.
What surprised me most was to see my father in the principal’s office.
“wh- + to do”的形式也能作表语。
eg. Our problem was how to get those involved information as soon as possible.
注:不定式作表语与动名词作表语的区别我们已经在学习动名词时讨论过了,此处也
不再重复。
3.作宾语
eg. He refused to give me a hand.
Tom failed to pass the English exam.
Little Alice appeared to have caught cold.
“wh- +to do”的形式也能作宾语。
eg. We have decided where and when to hold a meeting.
The old man taught me how to catch fish with the net.
如果在不定式宾语的后面还有宾语补足语的话,可以用it作形式宾语,而把真实宾语
放到后面。
eg. I found it not easy to persuade him to change his mind.
4.作宾语补足语
eg. The teacher advised me to read a lot.
His illness caused him to miss the game.
注:在一些感觉动词与使役动词后面的不定式宾语补足语要省略“to”,这些动词是see,
look at, notice, watch, observe, hear, listen to, feel; make, have, let等。help后的宾补的to可
以省略,也可以保留。
eg. I noticed a man steal into the office.
They heard the space ship take off with a very loud noise.
Don’t let the children play in the street.

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I will have them check it again.
I’ll help you (to) carry the bag upstairs.
但如果这个动词是被动语态,那么“to”就不省略。
eg. The poor boy was made to copy the text ten times.
He was seen to quarrel with an old man.
注:不定式与 分词都能用作宾语补足语,如果是主动的则现在分词与不定式都可以用,
但分词强调动作在进行当中,而 不定式则可能动作已经完成,强调整个过程,或是带有将
来的意义。如果宾语与宾补的关系是被动的,那 么就选用过去分词,偶尔也可看到用being
done。
试比较:I heard the telephone ringing in the office.
I heard the telephone ring three or four times in the office this morning.
I once heard the song sung in English.
I heard the boy being scolded by his mother.

He had the boy standing at the corner.
He had the boy do the exercise again.
He had the watch mended again.
5.作定语
不定式作定语,放在被修饰词之后。
eg. He worked out a plan to help his brother.
Have you anything to say about it?
Tom was the first to come this morning.
注:不定式作定语,经常用在something, anything, nothing与序数词之后。并要特别注
意不定式定语时,有时与被修饰词之间所用的介词不能忘记。
eg. The first thing for him to do is to find a room to live in.
You won’t have anything to worry about.
Please find me a knife to cut the paper with.
与分词相比较,不定式作定语常带有将来的意义。
试比较:Do you know the name of the book
to be translated
by Mr Glen?

being

translated

translated
6.作状语
不定式经常用作目的、原因和结果状语。
eg. She worked day and night to pay for the debt
To be a teacher, one must first be a pupil.
I am glad to meet you.
He was sad to hear the news.
I hurried to the station only to find the train gone.
The boy woke up to find his bag of money missing.
与分词作状语一样,不定式作状语时,也要注意它的逻辑主语应该与句子的主语一致。
试分析:To learn the language well, ______.
A. more exercise should be done B. it’s necessary to read a lot
C. learning some grammar is helpful D. one must practice a lot.

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应该选D。
但也有一些不定式可以看作一个固定词组,作整个句子的状语,如to tell the truth, to be
frank with you, to begin with等。
eg. To be frank with you, I don’t like the idea.
三、不定式的省略
1.省略to。
A)在用and, or等连接的两个并列的不定式,第二个不定式前的to可以省略。
eg. The robot can help you to clean the room and (to) wash clothes.
Being blind and deaf, Helen was not able to see or (to) hear.
在rather than后的不定式一般都要省略to。
He prefers to work with his hands rather than work with his brain.
B)在but, except之后,有时要省略。
比较:He did nothing but watch TV all the evening.
He had no choice but to wait outside patiently.
C)在make, have, let, see, hear, notice等词或词组之后的不定式宾补,要省略to。
2.省略to后面的行为动词或词组,但保留to。
eg. “Would you like to see a movie with me?” “I’m glad to.” 或 “Sorry, I am not able
to.”
My father has given up smoking, but he used to.


语法讲座九:反意疑问句和倒装句
一、反意疑问句(disjunctive questions tag questions)
1.前一句是肯定句,后面要用否定问句;前面 是否定句,包括句子里带有否定意义的词
如never, seldom, hardly, scarcely, rarely, few, little, no, nothing, none 等,后面要用肯定问句。
eg. He has made few friends in his class, has he?
You seldom meet with this kind of matter, do you?
She said nothing at the meeting, did she?
但是要注意,impossible, dissatisfy, uncomfortable这类词不是否定词。
eg. He is impossible to finish the work by himself, isn’t he?
The result of the maths exam dissatisfied you, didn’t it?
You failed to pass the test, didn’t you?
2.前后的人称要一致,但后面的问句中只能用代词,不能用名词。如果前面 的主语是
everything, anything, something,nothing那么在问句中用it作主语;如果前面是everyone,
everybody, no one, nobody, someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, those, all(指人)等词作主
语,那么后面问句可以用he或者they作主语,现在用they更加普遍。
eg. Everything is ready, isn’t it?
Nothing can prevent him from working, can it?
Everyone in the village knew the man, didn’t they he?
如果是there be的句型,那么后面的问句就用引导词there。
eg. There are many people in the meeting room, aren’t there?
3.前后的动词要一致,但后面的问句只用动词的缩略形式。
eg. Linda feels better today, doesn’t she?
He cannot walk, can he?

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注1 :have如果解为“有”,那么后面问句中可以用have,也可以用do。have如果与其
他动词 组成一些词组,如have a meeting, have lunch, have to等,后面问句多用do。如果
have是作为助动词构成完成时态,后面问句就用have。
eg. He has no brothers, has does he?
Most of the students have lunch at school, don’t they?
You have been to many places, haven’t you?
注2:当must作为“猜测”的用法时,后面的问句中往往不用mus t,而是跟must后面
的动词。
eg. He must be a teacher, isn’t he?
It must have rained last night, hasn’t it?
Tom must have finished his homework now, hasn’t he?
4.带有从句的复合句,反意疑问句一般跟主句。
eg. He could run very fast when he was young, couldn’t he?
Mary was late because her father was ill, wasn’t she?
The man who helped us yesterday is the manager of the company, isn’t he?
You didn’t expect that we would win, did you?
注:如果是I think, I expect, I believe 等加上宾语从句的句子,后面的问句就要跟从句
一致。否则就不合逻辑了。
eg. I don’t think he’ll appear this time, will he?
5.祈使句后的反意疑问句,后面的动词用will,也可以用would, could, 或can 。如果是
肯定的祈使句,后面的问句可以用肯定,也可以用否定;如果是否定的祈使句,则多用肯
定的问句。
eg. Come with us, will won’t you?
Don’t be late, will you?
以let’s开头的祈使句,后面的问句用shall we,在口语中也可以用OK。 以let us me
him them开头的祈使句,后面的问句用will you。
eg. Let’s go, shall we OK?
Let me have a look, will you?

二、倒装句 (Inversion)
我们在本节中,只讨论狭义的倒装结构,也就是只讨论句子的主谓部分倒装。
1.全部倒装和部分倒装 (Full Inversion and Partial Inversion)
倒装分成全 部倒装与部分倒装两种。全部倒装时,我们直接把所有的谓语动词都搬到
主语之前;部分倒装的时候,句 子的主谓结构类似一般疑问句的主谓结构,经常是动词的
一部分在主语之前,剩余部分还在主语之后。
比如在句子Tom stands in front of the blackboard中, 主语是Tom,谓语是stands,所以
当主谓语全部倒装时,主语和谓语的语序是stands Tom;部分倒装时,主语和谓语的语序
就是does Tom stand。再比如在句子David is sitting over there中,主语是David,谓语动词
是is sitting,那么全部倒装时,主语和谓语就是is sitting David这样的语序;部分倒装时,
主语和谓语的语序就是is David sitting。
想一想,如果句子是Tom is a good singer呢?如果句子是Peter was very excited呢?这
样的句子,它们的全部倒装和部分倒装形式又是什么样子的?
从上面的例子可以看出,当谓语动词是is, am, are, was, were时,全部倒装与部分倒装
的形式重合了。

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2.全部倒装 (Full Inversion)
全部倒装结构主要用于以下两种句型:
A)以here, there, now, then以及表示地方或方位移动的副词或介词短语开头的句子。
eg. Here comes the bus.
There goes the bell.
Now comes today’s news.
Down struck the hammer.
In rushed the boy.
On the top of the hill stands a temple built 400 years ago.
Under the road run the pipes for gas and water.
注:在这一句型中,如果主语是代词,那么虽然句首还是同样的词或词组,主语和谓
语并不倒装。
eg. In he rushed.
Here it comes.
B)当直接引语在前面时,主句的主谓部分可以倒装。
eg. “Please go away,” said one child.
“Where do you come from?” asked the little girl.
但是这一句型中,也可以不用倒装结构。
2.部分倒装(Partial Inversion)
部分倒装结构用于以下几种句型:
A)以否定词如not, never, hardly, scarcely, rarely, seldom, little, few, not only(... but also),
hardly(... when), no sooner(... than), not until等开头的句子。
eg. Little did I dream that such a thing would happen.
Never have they ever seen an animal like that.
Rarely does such a thing happen in our district.
In no circumstances will I allow you to go there.
Hardly had I got home than it began to rain.
Scarcely had she left when the phone rang again.
Not only are the students interested in the film, but also the teacher began to love it.
Not until people lose their health do they realize its value.
注:not until引导的句子里,主句的主谓倒装。
B)以only开头的句子。
eg. Only on one point do I agree with you.
Only when his mother came home did the boy begin to do his homework.
注:only引导的句子里,主句的主谓倒装。
C)以so加上形容词或副词开头的句子。
eg. So busy is he that he has no time to read newspapers.
So fast did he run that I could not keep up with him.
D)以so, neither, nor + V. + S.的句型,表示“另一个也(不)如此”。
eg. Mary spent the whole evening watching TV, and so did Jane.
It is hot today. So was yesterday.
The geography books haven’t arrived. Neither have the history books.
He can’t remember the new telephone number. Nor can I.
注:有时以so开头的句子不用倒装形式,这时这个句子的意思是“的确如此”,只是表

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示完全同意前面一句话。
eg. “You forgot to bring the textbook with you!” “Good heavens! So I did.”
“Bill is the cleverest in our class.” “So he is.
E)以一些副词或词组如often, always, many a time, well, thus等开头的句子。
eg. Often do I see the man in the supermarket.
Well do I remember my first day at school.
Thus was the emperor cheated.
F)句型 “Gone are the days when...”
eg. Gone are the days when I was young.
*G)虚拟条件句中,把were, had, should放在句首,省略连词if.。
eg. Were I in your place, I would accept the job.
Had I known it then, I would not have done it.
Should it be Sunday tomorrow, I would go with you.


语法讲座十:连词和状语从句
一、连词
1.并列连词
用来连接两个并列成分(词、短语或句子)的连词是并列连词。
A)表示对等关系的连词主要有and, both...and..., not only...but also..., not only...
but ......as well, nor, neither, neither... nor..., not... or...。
eg. The policeman blew his whistle and the car stopped.
Turn the handle to the right and the box will open. (= If ......)
I have not said that before, nor will I ever say so in the future.
B)表示转折关系的连词主要有but, however, nevertheless, (and) yet, (but) still, while。
eg. I enjoy crime stories, but it doesn’t mean that I will commit a crime myself.
Tim was very tired, however, he kept on working.
It may rain, nevertheless, we will start on our trip.
There seems little chance for him, but still he doesn’t want to give up.
C)表示选择关系的连词主要有or, either... or..., whether... or..., otherwise。
eg. Either you leave the house, or I’ll call the police.
Hurry up, orotherwise, you’ll miss the train. (= Unless......)
D)表示因果关系的连词主要有for, so, therefore。
eg. It must be very cold outside, for the river is frozen over.
I was absent minded, so I didn’t hear the teacher’s instruction.
The old woman expected her son would come back, therefore, she left the door
unlocked.
2.从属连词
从属连词可以引导各种从句,它们的功 能就是把主句和从句连接在一起,但是在学
习的时候千万要注意,与汉语有所不同,英语中主句和从句之 间,一般只要用一个连词就
可以了,这就是为什么我们在英语中“因为”,就不好再用“所以”,用了“ 虽然”就不好
再用“但是”的道理。当然有些原本是由两个部分构成的连词不包括在内,如:both. .. and...;
not only..., but also... ;hardly... when...等
很多从属连词还有自己的意思。所以在学习从句的时候,掌握连词的正确使用是十分重

34


要的。因为我们下面会分别讨论各种从句,所以从属连词的内容就放到各 种从句中再详细
讨论学习。
二、状语从句
1.时间状语从句
A)常用连词:when, whenever, while, as, before, after, till, until, since, as soon as, once,
hardly...when, no sooner... than, by the time, each time, every time, the moment, the first time
等。
eg. Phone me whenever you meet with problems.
As days went by, it was getting colder and colder.
Once you master the rules, it will become very easy.
By the time he reached the airport, the plane had already taken off.
Every time we go on a picnic it rains.
You are sure to recognize the man the moment you see him.
The first time the director saw her, she was quarrelling with her classmates.
B)复习要点:
a)注意时间状语从句中,一般要用现在时态代替将来时态。
b)连词until的用法
eg. Wait there until I arrive..
Don’t leave there until I arrive.
c)when可连接并列句,意思为“就在那时”。
eg. Jasmine was holidaying in a wildlife park when she was bitten by on the leg by a
bear.
He was about to tell me the secret when someone patted him on the shoulder.
d)while可连接并列句,意思为“而......”。
eg. The southerners eat rice while the northerners like noodles.
2.地点状语从句
A)连词:where, wherever
eg. I’ll pick you up where you get off the bus.
Mold(霉菌) grows quickly wherever it is warm and wet.
WhereWherever there is water, there is life.
B)注意地点状语从句和定语从句的区别
eg. Go back where you came from.
Go back to the place where you came from.
试译:他突然发现自己又回到了原来出发的地方了。
用定语从句:He suddenly found that he was back to the place where he had started.
用状语从句:He suddenly found that he was back where he had started.
3.原因状语从句
连词:because, since, as, now that
eg. We were late because there was a lot of traffic on the way.
Since it’s Sunday today, there are more people in the market..
As she has no car, she can’t get there easily.
Now that you are tired, you must take a rest.
注意,在回答用Why提问的句子和强调句型(It is ... that)时,一般只用because,
因为在这些连词中,because 最强调原因,而since, as, now that以及并列连词for所讲的原

35


因,要么是双方都已经知道的原因,要么并不是直接原因。
4.目的状语从句
A)连词:that, so that, in order that
eg. He is keeping quiet that he may not disturb his father.
Bring it closer so that I maycan see it better.
He studied harder in order that he might catch up with his classmates.
B)目的状语从句可以用in order to或so as to转换。
eg. I got up early so that I might catch the early bus.
→ I got up early in order to catch the early bus.
C)在目的状语从句中,动词前一般要用can, could, may, might等助动词,有时也可用will
或would。
5.结果状语从句
A)连词:that, so that, so... that, such...that
eg. What have I done that you should be so angry with me?
The boy climbed higher, so that he saw the roof of the building.
The moonlight was so bright that we didn’t need a flashlight.
It was such a lovely day that we decided to go for a picnic.
B)注意so... that与such... that的不同用法。
用such...that的句型是:such + adj. + n. that...
用so...that的句型是:so +. that...。但是so...that的句型也可以 在that前用名词,
但只能是可数名词的单数(词序是:so + adj. + a + n. that...)。此外当句型中的形容词是many,
much, few, little(少)时,也只能用so...that的句型。
eg. He is such a clever boyso clever a boy that he can solve these problems very fast.
There are so many people here that we don’t have enough seats for them.
C)that与so that可以引导结果状语从句和目的状语从句,要区别这两种从 句,只要看从
句中的动词,因为在目的状语从句中,一般要用can, could, may, might等助动词,而结果状
语从句中则不用。
eg. They worked night and day so that they might finish the building ahead of schedule.
(目的)
They worked night and day so that they finished the building ahead of schedule.(结
果)
6.条件状语从句
A)连词:if, unless, as long as, so long as, on condition that, in case等。
eg. If they don’t get here soon, we will leave without them.
He will not phone me, unless something unexpected happens.
注:用if或unless引导的从句经常可以互相转换。上面两个例子就可以变成:
Unless they get here soon, we will leave without them.
He will not phone me if there’s nothing unexpected happens.或He will phone me if
there’s something unexpected happens.

You can go out, as long asso long as on condition that you promise to be back before
11 o’clock.
Call me immediately in case anything happens.
B)条件状语从句中一般要用现在时态来代替将来时态。

36


C)条件状语从句经常可以用“祈使句+ and or...”来转换。
eg. If you listen carefully, there won’t be any difficult points for you.
→Listen carefully, and there won’t be any difficult points for you.
No one will understand unless you speak slowly and clearly.
→Speak slowly and clearly, or no one will understand.
*D)除了真实条件句之外,还有虚拟条件句, 从句中的条件和结果都与事实相反。现在
上海市的高考英语中,虚拟条件句只要求理解。(详情见后)
虚拟条件句的主要形式见下表:

条件状语从句中动词 主句中动词
与现在事实相反
与过去事实相反
将来的可能性几乎没

did
had dong
did should do were to
do
shouldwouldcouldmight do
shouldwouldcouldmight have
done
shouldwouldcouldmight do
7.方式状语从句
A)连词:as, just as......so..., as if, as though。
eg. The professor told his students to do as he did.
Just as one gesture can have many different meanings, so many different gestures can
have the same meaning.
He talked as ifthough he had a potato in his mouth.
*B)用as if或as though的句子,经常用虚拟语气,表示与事实相反,动词的用法是:从
句动词的动作 或状态与主句动词同时发生时,用过去时态,从句动词的动作或状态发生在
主句动词之前,用过去完成时 态。
eg. He passed by Jane, as if he didn’t see her.
He is talking as if he had seen the accident himself.
8.比较状语从句
连词:as... as, not asso... as, than。
比较状语从句在前面形容词副词这一章节中已经讨论过了,此处不在重复。
9.让步状语从句
A)连词:though, although, as, even if, even though, whether... or, whoever, whatever,
whichever, whenever, wherever, however, no matter whowhatwhichwhenwherehow...
等。
eg. ThoughAlthough he is young, he is experienced. = Young as he is, he is experienced.
Even if it rains or snows, he goes to work by bike.
They’re not happy even though they have everything they need.
Things will change, whether you like it or not.
No matter who Whoever says so, it is not true.
No matter what Whatever difficulty he meets with, he won’t give it up.
No matter which Whichever you choose from them, you will be satisfied.
Come no matter when whenever you have time.
No matter where Wherever she goes, they will follow her.
No matter howHowever hard he tried, he couldn’t get it through.
B)注意as引导让步状语从句时的词序:.n. v.+ as +S + V
eg. Child as he is, he knows a lot.

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Much as I admire him, I don’t like him.
Try as you may, you can’t succeed without others’ help.
*C)even if, even though也可以引导一个虚拟语气的从句,用法同虚拟条件句。
D)引导让步状语从句时,no matter who = whoever,no matter what = whatever,......。但
是没有no matter whether(X)!


语法讲座十一:名词性从句
一、名词性从句的三类连词
名词性从句包括主语从句,表语从句,宾语从句和同位语从句 。根据这些从句的共同
特性,名词性从句的连词主要可以分成三类:that, if whether和wh-(疑问词)。
1.如果一个陈述句被用来作为另一个句子的主语、表语、宾语 或同位语,那么我们一般
要用that作为连词。that本身在句子中没有意思,只起连接作用。
eg. 陈述句:Science is developing very fast.
主语从句:It is known to all that science is developing very fast.
表语从句:The fact is that science is developing very fast.
宾语从句:Everyone knows that science is developing very fast.
同位语从句:The fact that science is developing very fast is known to all.
2.如果一个一般 疑问句被用来作为另一个句子的主语、表语、宾语或同位语,那么我们
要用whether或if作为连 词。whether if在句子中的意思是“是否”。变成名词性从句后,
原来的疑问句的词序要改成 陈述句的词序(主语+谓语)。
eg. 一般疑问句:Shall we have a meeting this afternoon?
主语从句:Whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon hasn’t been decided yet.
或:It hasn’t been decided yet whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon.
表语从句:The question is whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon.
宾语从句:Do you know whether we shall have a meeting this afternoon?
同位语从句:None of us can answer the question whether we shall have a meeting
this afternoon.
注意:原来的疑问句词序在从句中都被改变成陈述句的词序,复合句的标点符号由
主句的句型决定。 < br>3.如果一个特殊疑问句被用来作为另一个句子主语、表语、宾语或同位语,那么我们就
保留原来 的疑问词作为连词,这些疑问词的意思也保留在从句中。变成名词性从句之后,
原来的疑问句的词序要改 成陈述句的词序(主语+谓语)
eg. 特殊疑问句:Why did the water become smelly?
主语从句:Why the water became smelly must be found out immediately.
表语从句:The problem is why the water became smelly.
宾语从句:Scientists are trying to find out why the water became smelly.
同位语从句:Scientists are trying to solve the problem why the water became smelly.
注意:跟由一般疑问句被用来 作为名词性从句一样,特殊疑问句作名词性从句时,
原来的疑问句词序在从句中都要改变成陈述句的词序 ,复合句的标点符号也由主句的句型
决定。
此外,还要注意,当特殊疑问句中疑问词作主语时,句子的词序就是陈述句的词序,
如“Who helped you at that time?”“What happened to him later?”“What’s the matter with
you?”“What’s wrong with the computer?”,所以这些句子如充当名词性从句时,词序就不

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用再变了。
eg. I don’t know what’s wrong with the computer.
二、主语从句
eg. That she will go with us is certain.
Whether he’s coming doesn’t matter too much.
Who will do the work makes no difference.
Is what he said really true?
It’s very clear that we’ll win this time.
1.连接主语从句的连词that一般不能省略。
2.一般只能用whether,而不用if连接主语从句。
3.主语从句经常可以用it当形式主语,而把从句放到后面。
4.用whoever, whatever, whichever引导的主语从句,与who, what, which引导的从句的
比较。
一般来讲,用who, what, which引导的主语从句中的who, what, which可以看作是原
来特殊疑问句的疑问词,而whoever, whatever, whichever则不同,从句并不带疑问意义。
试比较下面的例句:
a) Who has been chosen this time is still not clear.
Whoever breaks this law deserves a fine..
b) What caused the extinction of the dinosaur greatly puzzled the zoologists.
Whatever has been decided today must be kept secret.
c) Which of the products is the best is quite obvious after the test.
Whichever of them comes in first will receive a prize.

请注意区分用whoever, whatever, whichever引导的名词性从句和状语从句,因为引导名
词性从句的whoever, whatever, whichever,不能用no matter who, no matter what, no matter
which来替换。
cf. Whatever happened to them will never happen to us again.(主语从句)
Whatever happens to him, he will keep on working.(状语从句)
三、表语从句
eg. The trouble is that I have forgotten her telephone number.
The question is whether it is worth doing.
That is what I am worrying about.
1.连接表语从句的连词that一般不省略。
2.一般只能用whether,而不用if连接表语从句。
3.表语从句有时也可以用as if, 或because引导。
eg. The girl looks as if she is going to cry.
This is because everything that is worth doing is worth doing well.
注意,用because 引导表语从句,句子的主语一般是it, this, that等,如果用The reason
作主语,那么后面的表语从句只能用that引导。
eg. The reason why he is absent today is that he is ill.
四、宾语从句
eg. They pretended that they knew how to weave the wonderful material.
I don’t know whether if he will attend the meeting.
Please tell me where you bought this reference book.

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1.连接宾语从句的连词that常省略。
2.可以用whe ther,也可以用if引导原本是一般疑问句的从句。但如果后面有or...或者
or not,还是选用whether。
3.如果宾语从句后面还有宾语补足语,经常要用it作形式宾语 ,而把宾语从句放到补语
的后面。
eg. All his friends thought it strange that he should be absent from the opening ceremony.
We have made it a rule that we’ll clean our rooms every Saturday morning.
4.如果主句动词是过去时态,那么宾语从句中的时态要作相应的变化,特别是在间 接引
语中,除非从句中的内容是“真理”,那就不用变化,保持现在时态。
cf. He always thinks it is his duty to keep the house clean.
He thought it was his duty to keep the house clean.
The teacher told us that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen.
5.主句动词是think, believe, suppose, imagine, expect等的时候,宾语从句中的否定要转
移到主句的动词上来。
eg. 我认为他不会来了。 I don’t think he will come.
他的教练相信这次他不可能赢了。His coach didn’t believe that he could win this
time.
*又:I think, I believe, I suppose等后加了宾语从句的复合句要改成反意疑问句时,后边
的反意疑 问句就要与从句中的内容保持一致,而非“don’t I?”
eg. I think he will win, won’t he?
I don’t suppose she will be happy, will she?
6.宾语从句也能用whoever, whatever, whichever引导,但是这些连词不能用no matter
who等来替换。
eg. Give it to whoever wants it.
I’ll just say whatever comes into my mind.
Just buy whichever is cheapest in the supermarket.
whoever, whatever和whichever引导的宾语从句与who, what, which引导的宾语从句的
主要区别与主语从句中的情况相同。
cf. A) I don’t know who has won the prize.
The prize will be given to whoever wins the competition.
B) I’m not quite sure what he wants to know.
One should stick to whatever one has begun.
C) I can’t tell which is better between the two.
You can take whichever you like.
*7.如果是suggest, order, insist, demand, request, advise, require, propose等动词引出的宾
语从句,那么从句中的动词要用should +动词原形,should可以省略。
eg. The engineer suggested that the electronic device (should) be tested at once.
He insisted that nothing (should) start till he arrived.
五、同位语从句
eg. The news that we are having a holiday tomorrow is not true.
He came to the decision that he must act at once.
I still have my doubt whether the business will do well.
No one can answer the question who first began to use fire.
1.同位语从句经常跟在fact, news, hope, truth, idea, suggestion, thought, question, order,

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problem, belief, doubt, fear, question, problem等名词之后,用来表明具体的内容。
2.同位语从句与定语从句的区别:
cf. A) The information that the film star is seriously ill is not reliable.(同位语从句)
The information that you got from the internet is not reliable. (定语从句)
B) The news that she told me is too good to believe. (定语从句)
The news that I have been admitted into the university is too good to believe. (同
位语从句)
*3.在suggestion, order, proposal, request, requirement等名词后面的同位语从句中的动
词,要用should +动词原形,或省略should直接用动词原形。
eg. He gave order that the work (should) be started at once.
They rejected my suggestion that we (should) hire an advertising company.

语法讲座十二:定语从句
一、先行词、关系代词和关系副词
1.先行词(antecedent)就是被定语从句所修 饰的名词。在英语中,定语从句跟在被修饰词
之后,所以被修饰词就是“先行”的词。
eg. The lovely girl often helps the old lady.
She lives next door to our school.
→The lovely girl who lives next door to our school often helps the old lady.
→The lovely girl often helps the old lady who lives next door to our school.

The lovely girl often helps the old lady.
You met her at school yesterday.
→The lovely girl (whom)you met at school yesterday often helps the old lady.
→The lovely girl often helps the old lady (whom) you met at school yesterday.

2.连接定语从句,要用关系代词(relative pronoun)和关系副词(relative adverb)。关系代词
和关系副词与连接词不完 全相同,因为它们除了连接主句和定语从句,还在定语从句中代
替一定的成分。
eg. The book which I bought yesterday is very interesting.
← The book is very interesting. I bought the book yesterday.

I have visited the house where Andersen wrote The Emperor’s New Clothes.
←I have visited the house. Andersen wrote The Emperor’s New Clothes in the house.
二、关系代词
1.who的先行词是“人”,在从句中代替主语。
eg. The student who studies very hard come from Tibet.
Do you know the man who is talking with our headmaster?
Those who want to see the film star are waiting patiently at the gate.

注意:代替从句中的主语,who不能省略。who的单复数由先行词决定。但是要注意
“one of +先行词”与“the only one of+先行词”的情况。
eg. Tom是我们班喜欢打篮球的男生之一。
Tom is one of the boys in our class who like to play basketball.

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Jane是我们班唯一喜欢打篮球的女生。
Jane is the only one of the girl in our class who likes to play basketball.
2.whom的先行词是“人”,在从句中代替宾语。
eg. The friend whom we met in the library can help you with the problem.
The professor whom you will see later comes from the United Kingdom.
Do you remember the man whom we worked with together last year?
whom在从句中经常可以省略,但如果在介词后面,则不能省。
eg. Do you remember the man with whom we worked together last year?
3.which的先行词是“物”,在从句中可以代替主语或宾语。
eg. He owns a store which opens 24 hours.
I am looking for some books which deal with the customs in South Africa.
Jacky acts the hero in the film which we saw yesterday.
Can I have a look at the book which you borrowed this morning?
Have you seen the pen in the museum with which the president signed the peace
treaty?
which代替主语时,不能省略,代替宾语时则经常省略,但如果在介词后面,那么也不
能省略。
which代替主语时,它的单复数由先行词决定。
which的先行词有时还可以是前面的整个句子,这时它总是看成单数,也不能省略。
eg. The bamboo stems are hollow, which makes them very light.
Jenny was late again, which makes her teacher very angry.
4.that的先行词可以是“人”,也可以是“物”,在从句中可以代替主语或者宾语。
eg. They cut the trees that blocked the view.
Who is the man that just left from the meeting room?
The dress that Jessie bought for me suits me perfectly.
that代替主语时,不能省略,代替宾语时则经常省略。
that不能用在介词之后。
在一些特定的先行词,如:1)先行词是不定代词如anything, something, all等词,或由
all, every, little, any, much, the ver y等词所修饰;2)先行词前有最高级形容词或序数词所修
饰;3)先行词是由and连接的两个词,分 别指“人”和“物”的情况下,一般多用that。
eg. Is there anything that I can do here?
This is the very present that I am looking forward to.
This is the hottest summer that we have had in thirty years.
The second book that he wrote was not as popular as the first one.
He talked about the teachers and schools that he had visited in Britain.
5.whose的先行词可以是“人”,也可以是“物”,在从句中代替定语。
eg. The student whose pronunciation is the best in our class has entered for the
competition.
←The student has entered for the competition. His pronunciation is the best in our
class.
She mentioned a book whose title has slipped my memory.
←She mentioned a book. Its title has slipped my memory.
whose不能省略。如果先行词是“物”,我们也可以用sth. of which代替whose。
eg. She mentioned a book the title of which slipped my memory.

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←She mentioned a book. The title of the book slipped my memory.
6.as的先行词是“such+名词”,或者“the same +名词”,在从句中代替主语或者宾语。
eg. Let children read such books as will make them better and wiser.
←Let children read such books. The books will make them better and wiser.
I have met with the same problem as you have.
←You have (met with) the problem. I have met with the same problem.
as不能省略。
as的先行词有时还可以是一个句子,这个句子可以放在as之前,也可以放在as之后。
eg. He succeeded in passing the exam, as I had expected. As I had expected, he
succeeded in passing the exam.
←He succeeded in passing the exam. I had expected that he would succeeded in
passing the exam.
三、关系副词
1.when的先行词是表示时间的名词,如time, day, year, century等,when在从句中代替
时间状语。
eg. I will never forget the day when I first came to school.
←I will never forget the day. I first came to school on that day.
when一般不能省略。定语从句中,when可以用“介词+which”代替。
eg. I will never forget the day on which I first came to school.
The week when we worked in the countryside is unforgettable.
= The week in which during which we worked in the countryside is unforgettable.
注意:表示时间的名词后面并不 都是用when引导的定语从句,也可以是由which或that
引导的定语从句。试分析:
I still remember the day when he arrived in Shanghai.
←I still remember the day. He arrived in Shanghai on that day.
I still remember the day (whichthat) we spent together in the lab.
←I still remember the day. We spent the day together in the lab.
2.where的先行词是表示地点的名词,如place, room, house, school, factory等,where
在从句中代替地点状语。
eg. This is the village where Lincoln was born.
←This is the village. Lincoln was born in the village.
where一般不能省略。定语从句中,where可以用“介词+which”代替。
eg. Is there a shop near here where I can buy postcards?
= Is there a shop near here in which I can buy postcards?
注意:表示地点的名词后面并不 一定都是用where引导的定语从句,也可以是由which
或that引导的定语从句。试分析:
We will visit the factory where his father works.
← We will visit the factory. His father works in the factory.
We will visit the factory whichthat was built 100 years ago.
← We will visit the factory. It was built 100 years ago.
3.why的先行词是reason。
eg. Please tell me the reason why he is absent today.
The principal wanted to know the reason why the teacher became so angry.
why一般不省略。reason为先行词的时候,也可能是由which或that引导的从句。

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试分析:
I just can’t believe the reason why the boy failed again.
I just can’t believe the reason (which that) he gave me.

*关于非限定性定语从句
非限制性定语从句只是对主句内容 ,或先行词的补充、解释或附加说明。主句与先行词
或从句之间一般用逗号分开,常常单独翻译。没有它 ,主句意思仍然完整。引导非限制性
定语从句的关系代词有as,which,who, whom,w hose等,作定语从句的主语、宾语、
表语及定语。关系副词有when,where等,作定语从句 的状语。关系代词和关系副词在非
限制性定语从句中一般不能省。
要点:
1. which引导的非限定性定语从句来说明前面整个句子的情况或主句的某一部分,that不能
用于引 导非限制性定语从句
例如: Her house,which was built a hundred years ago,stood still in the earthquake.(那座房子
在地震中依然耸立,它是一百多年前建造的。)
2. 有时as也可用作关系代词
as引导非限制性定语从句时,可以代主句的全部或部分 内容。常表说话人关于说话的依据、
态度、评论、看法等。有“正如、像”等意思。定语从句可以置主句 句首、句中或句末。
as后常接expect,know,report,say,see等动词的主、 被动语态句。
eg.Mike,as we expected,attended the meeting.像我们所期望的那样,迈克参加了会议。
eg.He wasn't unconsicious,as could be judged from his eyes.他并未失去知觉,这从他的
眼神可以判断出来。
3. 在非限定性定语从句中,用who, whom代表人,用which代表事物。
4.当先行词是专有名词或物主代词和指示代词所修饰时,其后的定语从句通常是非限制性
的。
例如:Charles Smith, who was my former teacher, retired last year. 查理·史密斯去年退休
了,他曾经是我的老师。
My house, which I bought last year, has got a lovely garden. 我去年买的的那幢房子
带着个漂亮的花园。
5.非限制性定语从句还能将整个主句作为先行词, 对其进行修饰, 这时从句谓语动词要用第
三人称单数
例如:He seems not to have grasped what I meant, which greatly upsets me. 他似乎没抓住我
的意思,这使我心烦。
细说:
不少同学误认为只有 which 才能引导非限制性定语从句,这个观点是不正确的。使用非
限制性定语从句时,如果先行词指人,则用 who , which 或 whose 引导非限制性定语
从句;先行词指物可用 which 引导非限制性定语从句;先行词表时间或地点且在从句中作
时间状语或地点状语时,可用 when , where 引导非限制性定语从句。
一、which引导非限制性定语从句的情况很多。(略)
I. 指代主句的全部或部分内容时,常表事实、状态、起因等,有“这就使得、这一点”等
意 思,常置主句末。主句与定语从句用逗号分开。 II.指代先行词有多种情况。定语从句置
先行词后面。
在“n./pron./num....+prep.+ which”,“prep.+which”定语从句里。
Eg. They talked about a movie,the name of which I've never forgotten.他们谈论过一部电

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影,我决不会忘记片名。
China has thousands of islands,the largest of which is Taiwan.中国有数千个岛屿,其
中最大的是台湾岛。
Chaplin went to the states in 1910,by which time he had learnt to dance and act in
comedies.卓别林1910年去了美国,那时他已学会跳舞和演喜剧了。

二、as,which是指代主句内容的非限制性定语从句时,表依据、评论与表事实、状态等没有多大差别,用在主句末时,有时可以通用。
1.He is quite pleased,as /which can be seen from his face.他非常高兴,从他的表情
可以看出来。
2.You always work hard,as /which everyone knows.大家都知道,你一向勤奋学习。
但是,上面两句把定语从句置主句句首时,就只能用as。
3.This elephant is like a snake,as anybody can see.像任何人都能看见那样,这头象像
条蛇。
4.Bamboo is hollow,which makes it very light.竹子是空的,这就使得它很轻。
在否定意义的非限制性定语从句里,一般用which引导。
5.He came to my birthday party,which I didn't expect at all.我完全没有想到,他来参
加我的生日聚会了。

三、who,w hom,whose等引导非限制性定语从句时,指代人的普通名词、专有名词等。
表示正是或专指先行 词等情况。在定语从句中作主语、宾语、定语等。
1.Bob's father,who worked on the project,spent four years in Egypt.鲍勃的父亲从事
这项工程,在埃及度过了四年。
2.Dad,this is Zheng Jie,who I knew in Paris.爸,这是郑杰,我在巴黎认识的。 这
一句是用主格who代替宾格 whom。
3.His mother,whom he loved dearly, died in 1818.他非常爱戴他的母亲,她死于 1818
年。
4.Mr King,whose legs were badly hurt, was quickly taken to hospital.金先生的腿受
了重伤,他很快就被送去住院了。
n./pron./num....prep.whom;prep. whom;in whose +n.;the +n.of whom
等引导非限制性的定语从句。
5.He spoke of a pen-pal,the name of whom /whose name I've never forgotten.他提到
过一个笔友,他的名字我从未忘记。
6.About 2,000people,many of whom were Europeans,worked on the project.大约
两千人从事过这项工程,其中很多是欧洲人。
7.In his office there are nine clerks,the youngest of whom is Mr Liu.他办公室有9个
职员,其中最年轻的是刘先生。
8.I decided to write about Chaplin,one of whose films I had seen several years before.我
决定写有关卓别林的文章,他的一部电影我几年前就看过了。
9.We went to hear this famous singer, about whom we had heard many stories.我们去
听这个著名的歌唱家演唱。我们已经听说了有关他的很多故事。
10.Mr Pattis,in whose office Ms King was working,was very surprised when he found
out her secret.金女士在帕蒂思办公室工作。他发现她的秘密时感到非常惊奇。


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四、when,where引导非限制性定语从句时,作定语从句的状语。when =and then,
where =and there。why不引导非限制性定语从句。
1.He was quickly taken to hospital,where a doctor wanted to examine Mr King's legs.金
先生很快被送去住院,在那里一个医生要检查他的腿。
2.We will put off the outing until next week,when we won't be so busy.我们把郊游推
迟到下个星期,当我们不忙的时候。
3.He went to America in 1912,where and when he was noticed by an important film
director.他在1912年去了美国,在那里当时的他引起了一个重要电影导演的注意。
在prep.where /when非限制性定语从句里,where =there,when =then。
4.His head soon appeared out of the second storey windows,from where he could see
nothing but trees.他的头很快从第二层楼的一个窗户伸出来了,从那里他只能看见树木。
5.That was in 1929,since when things have been better.那是在1929年,从那时起情
况就已经好转了。
6.I went to bed at ten,before when I was reading for an hour.我10点去睡觉,在那时
以前我看了1小时的书。
有时候where /when可以用prep.which替换。
7.The southern states wanted to set up a country of their own,in which where they would
be free to keep black slaves.南方各州要建立一个属于他们自己的国家,在那里他们将自由
地保留黑人奴隶。
8.I still remembered January 10,on which /when he came to see me.我仍然记得1
月10日,他来看我的那一天。


*限制性和非限制性定语从句的区别
定语从句有限制性和非限制 性定语从句两种。一般地说,限制性定语从句用来限制先行
词的意义,与先行词关系密切,是整个句子不 可缺少的一部分,否则会造成全句意义不明
确。而非限制性定语从句带有补充说明的性质,与先行词之间 存在一种松散的修饰关系,
去掉后一般不会影响句子的主要意义。概括起来,两者有如下区别: 1)形式不同:限制性定语从句常紧跟其先行词,中间不用逗号隔开;而非限制性定语从句
与先行词 之间常用逗号隔开。
After living in Paris for fifty years, he returned to the small town where he grew up as a
child. 在巴黎生活了50年后,他回到了小时候生活过的那个小镇。
2)意义不同 :请比较下面两个句子:
My brother who is 18 years old is a college student. 我18岁的那个弟弟是大学生。
My brother, who is 18 years old, is a college student. 我弟弟是大学生,今年18岁。
第一句中,限制性定语从句限制了先行词的意义 ,明确是18岁的那个弟弟(而不是其他的,
即有可能还有几个弟弟)。第二句使用了非限制性定语从句 ,表明可能只有一个弟弟,18岁,
起补充说明作用。另外,如果先行词是专有名词或独一无二的人或物 ,通常用非限制性定
语从句。
His mother, who loved him very much, died in 1818. 最爱他的母亲于1818年去世了。
I like to chat with Jack, who is a clever boy. 我喜欢和杰克聊天,他是个聪明人。
When he was 17, he went to a technical school in Zurich, Switzerland, where he studied
maths and physics. 17岁那年,他到瑞士的苏黎士一家技校上学,在那儿他学习了数学和物
理。

46


3)先行词不同:限制性定语从句的先行词通常是名词或代词,而非限制 性定语从句的先行
词除名词或代词外,还可以是整个主句(此时,常用which或as引导从句)。
All that is needed is a supply of oil. 所需要的只是一些油而已。
Carol said the work would be done by October, which personally I doubted very much. 凯罗
尔说工作可在10月前完工,这一点我个人深感怀疑。
As has been announced, we shall have our final exams next week.
我们将于下周举行期末考试,这一点刚才已经宣布了。
句中as 是关系代词,引导非限制性定语从句,指代后面整个主句的内容。
4)引导词不同:限制性定语从句的引导词可用关系代词that, which, who( whom, whose), as
和关系副词when, where, why;除that 和why 外,其它的关系代词、关系副词均可引导非
限制性定语从句。
He is the only one of the students who that has been a winner of scholarship for three years.
他在这些学生中是唯一连续3年获得奖学金的一个。
She heard a terrible noise, which brought her heart into her mouth. 她听到一个可怕的声
音,差点儿把胆都给吓破了。(句中which不可用that代替)
The famous basketball star, who tried to make a comeback, attracted a lot of attention.那个
篮球明 星试图复出江湖,吸引了众人的注意。(句中who不可用that代替)
5)引导词省略情况不同 :众所周知,在限制性定语从句中,关系代词如果充当从句的宾语
可以省略;而非限制性定语从句中的关 系代词是不能省略的。
Is this the book (that which) you are looking for? 这就是你要找的那本书吗?(关系代词
that which充当从句的宾语,可以省略)
The result of the experiment was very good, which we hadn't expected. 实验的结果非常好,
这简直出乎我们的意料。( 关系代词 which在从句中充当expect的宾语,但因为引导的是
非限制性定语从句,所以不能省略)
6)译法不同:把句子翻译成汉语时,限制性定语从句中,通常先译从句后译先行词;而非
限制 性定语从句中则往往相反。
We are living in an age when many things are done on computer. 我们生活在一个许多工作
都由电脑来完成的时代。
We will be shown around the city: school, museums and some other places, where other
visitors seldom go. 我们将被带去参观全市各地:包括学校、博物馆和其它场所,那些其它
游客很少去的地方。

语法讲座十三:虚拟语气
虚拟语气:表示动作或状态不是客观存在的事实,而是说话人的主观愿望、假设或推测等。
一、if从句:
(一)
表示与事实情况相反 条件从句的谓语形式
表示现在情况
表示过去情况
表示将来情况
主句的谓语形式
过去式(did)(be常用 were)
would could might should + do
过去完成式(had +done)
①过去式 (did)(were)
②should + do
③were to do
would could might should +have done
would could might should + do
(二)错综时间的虚拟句:通常情况下,在条件句中主句和从句的谓语动词所指时间一致, 但

47


有时也可能指不同的时间,这时主句和从句的动作不是发生在同一时间, 其动词形式要根据
时间而定。
1. If I were you, I would have taken his advice. (从句指现在, 主句指过去)。
2. If I had taken my raincoat with me this morning, I would not be wet now. (从句指过去,主句
指现在)。
3. If we hadn’t been working hard in the past few years, things wouldn’t be going so smoothly.
(从句指过去,主句指现在)。
4. If the weather had been more favorable, the crops would be growing still better.(从句指过
去,主句指现在)。
5. If we had not got everything ready by now, we should be having a more terrible time
tomorrow. (从句指现在,主句指将来)
(三)省略:If 从句中含有were, should, had时,可省略if并把were, should, had提前。
例如:Were I you, I wouldn’t quarrel with him.
备注:注:would, should, could与might的选择:
一般常用would,如同在真实条件句中主句常要用will一样。常译作“将、就会”。如:
If I knew him, I would ask him for help. 如果我认识他的话,我就会向他求助。
should在虚拟条件句中用得最少,现在几乎不用。可能是 因为在陈述语气中第一人称后面
可以用shall,所以在虚拟语气中,理论上讲,第一人称后也可用s hould。但在现代英语中,
特别是美语中,人们常说:I’ll go home.或I will go home. 但很少人说I shall go home. 因
此,在虚拟条件句中,should也很少用。
could用于虚拟条件句中时,有“能够,可能”之意。如:
If you had come back a little earlier, you could have seen it yourself.
如果你回来得再稍早一点,你就可能亲眼目睹这件事了。
might用于虚拟条件句时,常译作“或许”,表示可能性有,但不敢肯定。如:
If I had been there, I might have quarreled with him. 如果我当时在场的话,我或许会和他吵
起来。
二、(should)do (should可以省略)形式的虚拟:宾语、表语、同位语都要求虚拟
(一)一坚持(insist) 二推荐(recommend)
三命令 (order, command, direct) 四建议 (suggest, advice, propose)
五要求(demand, require, request, urge, ask)
口诀:①I drop cars. ②Crid soap
即“I:insist 坚决,D:demanddesire要求请求,R:request请求require要求需要,O:
order命令,P:propose建议,C:command命令,A:ask命令,advise建议, P:prefer
宁愿,S:suggest建议”
注意: insist:①坚决宣称, 坚持认为,坚持说,固执己见(不虚拟)②坚决要求,坚持(虚
拟) suggest:①暗示(不虚拟)②建议, 提议(虚拟)

1. The man insisted that he didn’t steal the wallet and should be set free now.
2. Her pale face suggested that she was badly ill, so I suggested that she should go to see a
doctor at once.
3. My suggestion is that he should go there at once.
4. It is suggested that he should go there at once.
5. I made a suggestion that he should go there at once.
6. This is the suggestion that which he made at the meeting.(定语从句不用虚拟)

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(二) It is adj. for sb. that 主语+(should) do. (也可不虚拟)
It is a pity a shame no wonder that主语+(should) do. (也可不虚拟)
例如:1. It is necessary that he should be sent to the hospital at once.
2. It is a pity that he should miss such a golden chance.
三、It is (high) time that(虚拟) 过去式
should do(should不能省略)
It is time that we got up.
should get up.
四、would could might should +have done
(一)without, but for…, 主语+ would could might should +have done。(如果不…;要
不是…)
例:But for your help yesterday, I couldn’t have done it well.
(二) but: 主语+ would could might should +have done, but+句子.(真实的)
otherwise:句子(真实的),otherwise主语+ would could might should +have
done.
例:I would have taken part in the sports meeting, but I was ill.
I was ill; otherwise I would have taken part in the sports meeting.
五、wish, as if though, if only的从句 过去式(did)(be常用 were) (表示与现在事实情况相反)
过去完成式(had done) (表示与过去事实情况相反)
would could might + do(表示与将来事实情况相反)
例如:If only he had visited us yesterday.
六、would rather do than do
+句子(虚拟) 过去式(did)(be常用 were)表示与现在或将来情况相

过去完成式(had +done) 表示与过去情况相反
七、Long live +主语! 例:Long live the people!
May you do sth.! 例:May you succeed!
八、had+ expectedwantedintendedplannedhopedwishe dthoughtdreamed等表个人意
志、打算、想法的动词的过去分词,表示“本来要做某事( 暗含但是后来没有做成的)”。
其宾语从句的谓语用“would+动词原形”。
例:I had hoped that she would go to the U.S. and study there, but she said she liked to stay in
China.













49

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