现代英语语法

0831 现代英语语法
作 者 李基安
出 版 社外语教学与研究出版社
目录：
Chapter 1 The Structure of the English Sentence
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Morphemes
1.2 Words
1.2.1 Word classes
1.2.2 Word-formation
a. Affixation
b. Composition
c. Conversion
d. Blending
e. Back-formation
f. Shortening
g. Acronyms
1.3 Phrases
1.3.1 The noun phrase
1.3.2 The verb phrase
1.3.3 The adjective phrase
1.3.4 The adverb phrase
1.3.5 The prepositional phrase
1.4 Clauses
1.4.1 Subject and predicate
1.4.2 Clause patterns
1.4.3 Functions
1.5 Sentences
1.5.1 Simple, compound and complex sentences
1.5.2 Statements, commands, questions and exclamations
1.6 The text
1.7 Exercises
Chapter 2 Sentence Types
2.0 Introduction
2.1 Statements
2.1.1 Assertion vs. non-assertion
2.1.2 Negation
a. Choice of negative words
b. Scope of negation
c. Transferred negation
2.1.3 Other functions of statements
2.2 Questions
2.2.1 YES-NO questions
2.2.2 WH-questions
2.2.3 Alternative questions
2.2.4 Tag questions
a. Forms and meanings
b. Irregular question tags
2.3 Commands
2.4 Exclamations
2.4.1 WHAT- exclamations
2.4.2 HOW-exclamations
2.5 Exercises
Chapter 3 Noun and Noun Phrase (1): Noun and Number
3.0 Introduction
3.1 Noun classes
3.2 Number
3.2.1 Singular invariables
a. Proper nouns
b. Mass nouns
3.2.2 Plural invariables
3.2.3 Irregular plurals
a. Irregular spellingpronunciation
b. Zero plurals
c. Foreign plurals
d. Plural compounds
e. Plural of letters, numerals, abbreviations, etc.
3.3 Unit nouns
3.3.1 Unit nouns listed in alphabetical order
3.3.2 Unit nouns classified
3.4 Exercises

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Chapter 4 Noun and Noun Phrase (2): Determiner and Genitive
4.1 Determiners
4.1.1 Functions of determiners
4.1.2 Co-occurrence of determiners
4.1.3 Usage of some determiners
a. all and whole
b. all and both
c. all, every and each
d. both, each and either
e. any, either, no (none) and neither
4.1.4 Articles
a. Pronunciation
b. Generic reference vs. specific reference
c. Indefinite article a (n)
d. Definite article the
4.2 Genitives
4.2.1 Forms of genitive
4.2.2 Genitive vs. of-phrase
a. Genitive
b. Of-phrase
c. Genitive and of-phrase
4.2.3 Group genitive
4.2.4 Local genitive
4.2.5 Double genitive
4.3 Exercises
Chapter 5 Verb and Verb Phrase (1): Tense, Aspect and Future
5.0 Introduction
5.0.1 Classification of verbs
5.0.2 System of two tenses and two aspects
5.1 Tense
5.1.1 Simple present
a. Simple present referring to the present
b. Simple present referring to the past
c. Simple present referring to the future
5.1.2 Simple past
a. Simple past referring to the past
b. Simple past referring to the present
c. Simple past referring to the future
5.2 Aspect
5.2.1 Present progressive
a. Present progressive referring to the present
b. Present progressive referring to the past
c. Present progressive referring to the future
d. Progressive verbs and non-progressive verbs
5.2.2 Past progressive
a. Past progressive referring to the past
b. Past progressive referring to the present or the future
5.2.3 Present perfect and present perfect progressive
a. Present perfect referring to a state, a habit or an event
b. Present perfect vs. simple past
c. Finishedunfinished use and present perfect progressive
d. Adverbials and constructions associated with present perfect
5.2.4 Past perfect and past perfect progressive
a. Finishedunfinished use and past perfect progressive
b. Hypothetical use of past perfect
5.3 Future
5.3.1 Willshall do sth. (see 7.2 for more details)
5.3.2 Be going to do sth.
5.3.3 Present progressive
5.3.4 Simple present
5.3.5 Other constructions expressing future time
a. Will(shall) be doing sth.
b. Be about to do sth.
c. Be to do sth.
5.4 Exercises
Chapter 6 Verb and Verb Phrase (2): Passive Voice and Subjunctive Mood
6.0 Introduction
6.1 Passive voice
6.1.1 Be-passive, get-passive and pseudo- passive
6.1.2 Voice constraints
a. Grammatical constraints

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b. Semantic constraints
c. Stylistic constraints
6.1.3 By-phrase
6.1.4 Passive voice of multi-word verbs
a. Verb + preposition
b. Verb + particle
c. Verb + particle + preposition
d. Verb + noun phrase + preposition
6.1.5 Passive voice of non-finite verbs
6.2 Subjunctive mood
6.2.1 Be- subjunctive
a. Formulaic be-subjunctive
b. Mandative be-subjunctive
c. Other uses of be- subjunctive
6.2.2 Were-subjunctive
6.3 Exercises
Chapter 7 Verb and Verb Phrase (3): Modal Auxiliaries
7.0 Introduction
7.1 Can and may
7.1.1 Cancould
7.1.2 Maymight
7.1.3 Can vs. may
7.2 Will and shall
7.2.1 Willwould(’ll’d)
7.2.2 Shall(should)
7.3 Should and ought to
7.3.1 Should
7.3.2 Ought to
7.3.3 Should vs. ought to
7.4 Must, need and have (got) to
7.4.1 Must
7.4.2 Need
7.4.3 Have (got) to
7.5 Dare
7.6 Exercises
Chapter 8 Verb and Verb Phrase (4): Non-finite Verbs
8.0 Introduction
8.1 Infinitive
8.1.1 Bare infinitive
a. Aux + verb
b. Idiomatic verb constructions
c. Rathersooner than
d. Do
e. Why
8.1.2 To-infinitive
a. Verb + infinitive
b. Verb + object + infinitive
c. Verb + (object) + infinitive
8.1.3 Other uses of infinitive
8.2 -ing participle
8.2.1 Object to verb
8.2.2 Logical subject
8.2.3 Infinitive of –ing participle
a. Begin, cease, continue, start
b. Like, love, hate
c. Deserve, need, require, want
d. Remember, forget, go on
e. Mean, regret, try
f. Advise, allow, encourage, permit, recommend
8.3 -ed participle
8.3.1 -ed participle as a premodifier
8.3.2 -ed participle as a complement
a. Subject complement
b. Object complement
8.4 Dangling participle
8.5 Exercises
Chapter 9 Adjective Phrase and Comparison
9.0 Introduction
9.1 Syntactic features of adjectives
9.1.1 Structure of the adjective phrase
9.1.2 Attributive adjectives and predicative adjectives

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a. Attributive adjectives
b. Predicative adjectives
9.2 Semantic classification of adjectives
9.2.1 Stative adjectives vs. dynamic adjectives
9.2.2 Gradable adjectives vs. non-gradable adjectives
9.2.3 Inherent adjectives vs. non-inherent adjectives
9.2.4 Restrictive adjectives vs. non-restrictive adjectives
9.2.5 Marked adjectives vs. unmarked adjectives
9.3 Ordering of premodifying adjectives
9.4 Comparison
9.4.1 Forms of comparison
a. Regular inflection
b. Irregular inflection
9.4.2 Usage notes
a. Elder and older
b. Farther and further
c. Less and fewer
d. Lesser
e. The
f. The more...the more...
9.4.3 Comparative constructions
a. As...as...
b. More...than...
c. The most...
9.4.4 Ellipsis in comparative sentences
9.4.5 Other expressions of comparison
9.5 Exercises
Chapter 10 Preposition and Prepositional Phrase
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Forms of prepositions
10.1.1 Simple prepositions
10.1.2 Complex prepositions
10.2 Meanings of prepositions
10.2.1 Prepositions relating to Place
a. At, on and in
b. Over, above, under and below
c. Between and among
d. Aboard the ship, etc.
e. From above, etc.
10.2.2 Prepositions relation to time
a. At, on and in
b. Time expressions without prepositions
10.2.3 Prepositions denoting other relations
10.3 Collocations of prepositions with verbs, adjectives and nouns
10.4 Exercises
Chapter 11 Coordination and Subordination
11.0 Introduction
11.1 Coordination
11.1.1 Coordinators
a. And and related coordinators
b. Or and related coordinators
c. But and related coordinators
11.1.2 Punctuation between coordinated units
11.2 Subordination
11.2.1 Subordinators
11.2.2 Subordinate clauses
a. Finite subordinate clauses
b. Non-finite and verbless clauses
11.2.3 Exercise
Chapter 12 Relative Clause
12.0 Introduction
12.1 Restrictiveness and non-restrictiveness
12.2 Antecedent
12.2.1 Nominal antecedent
a. Antecedent + restrictive relative clause
b. Antecedent + non-restrictive relative clause
c. Antecedent + restrictivenon-restrictive relative clause
12.2.2 Non-nominal antecedent
a. Clause as antecedent
b. Verb phrase as antecedent
c. Predicative adjective as antecedent

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12.3 Choice of relative pronouns
12.3.1 Relative pronouns in restrictive relative clauses
a. Pronouns for personal antecedents
b. Pronouns for non- personal antecedents
c. Relative adverbs
12.3.2 Relative pronouns in non-restrictive relative clauses
12.4 Double relative clause
12.5 Exercises
Chapter 13 Adverbials
13.0 Introduction
13.1 Adjuncts
13.1.1 Time adjuncts
a. Types of time adjuncts
b. Positions of time adjuncts
13.1.2 Place adjuncts
a. Types of place adjuncts
b. Positions of place adjuncts
13.1.3 Proccess adjuncts
a. Manner-adjuncts
b. Instrument- adjuncts
c. Agentive-adjuncts
13.1.4 Contingency adjuncts
a. Reason-adjuncts
b. Result-adjuncts
c. Purpose-adjuncts
d. Concession-adjuncts
e. Condition-adjuncts
13.1.5 Other adjuncts
13.2 Disjuncts
13.3 Conjuncts
a. Enumeration-conjuncts
b. Addition-conjuncts
c. Transition- conjuncts
d. Summation-conjuncts
e. Explanation-conjuncts
f. Contrast-conjuncts
g. Result-conjuncts
h. Inference-conjuncts
i. Concession-conjuncts
13.4 Exercises
Chapter 14 Concord
14.0 Introduction
14.1 Principles of concord
14.2 Subject- verb concord
14.2.1 Collective nouns as subject
14.2.2 Coordinated noun phrases as subject
14.2.3 Expressions of quantity as subject
a. Subject with numerals
b. Subject with indefinite quantifiers
14.2.4 Nominal clauses as subject
14.2.5 Concord in the existential sentence
14.2.6 Concord in the relative clause
14.3 Pronoun concord
14.4 Exercises
Chapter 15 Information structure and Emphasis
15.0 Introduction
15.1 Information structure
15.1.1 Given and new information
15.1.2 Information focus
15.2 Postponement
15.2.1 Passive voice
15.2.2 Extraposition
a. Extraposed clausal subject
b. Extraposed clausal object
15.2.3 Discontinuity
15.2.4 Other types of postponement
15.3 Fronting
15.4 Inversion
15.4.1 Partial inversion
15.4.2 Complete inversion
15.5 Cleaving

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15.5.1 Cleft sentence
15.5.2 Pseudo-cleft sentence
15.6 Existential sentence
15.6.1 Information structure of existential sentence
15.6.2 Grammatical features of existential sentence
15.7 Exercises
Chapter 16 Cohesion
16.0 Introduction
16.1 Reference
16.1.1 Reference by pronouns
16.1.2 Reference by demonstratives
16.1.3 Reference by comparison
16.2 Substitution
16.2.1 Nominal substitution by one
16.2.2 Verbal substitution by do
16.2.3 Clausal substitution by so or not
16.3 Ellipsis
16.3.1 Nominal ellipsis
16.3.2 Verbal ellipsis
16.3.3 Clausal ellipsis
16.4 Other cohesive devices
16.4.1 Transition
16.4.2 Repetition
16.4.3 Parallelism
16.5 Exercises
Appendix I Noun + Preposition
Appendix II Preposition + Noun
Appendix III Verb + Preposition
Appendix IV Adjective + Preposition
Bibliography

第一部分：引言
《现代英语语法》是由李基安先生编写，全国高等教育自学考试指导委员会指定的全国高等教育自学考试教材。
关于这门课程的考试要求，可参见该教程第425所附录的《英语语法自学考试大纲》。大纲是方向、目 标，广大考生必须仔细了解。
英语语法是关于英语语言结构的理论知识。通过该课程的学习，学员能够 比较系统地认识英语从词，句到语篇的构造，从而提高他们应用
英语的规范性。
在学习该教材 时，学员普遍存在两种倾向：一是，由于该教材都是用英文编写，里面又涉及很多专业术语，许多学员觉得高深、 难懂；二
是，有些学员认为，自己从学英语开始就在学习英语语法，没有必要在这门功课上花太多的精力 ，所有的语法书都大同小异，自己稍做准
备就能对付过去。
其实，两种看法都失偏颇。现代语 法的发展与传统语法已经存在比较明显的差异，例如：传统语法认为，英语有九种（甚至十六种）时态，
该教程则采取的是‘a system of two tenses and two aspects’—-—-—-两时两体体系。另外对phrases, clauses 的概念也有不同的
定义。书中提到的一些其他语言现象，如：外位[extraposition], 分隔[discontinuity], 分裂句[cleft sentence]等都是一般语法书所
不提及或者阐述不同。该教材也并非高深莫测，毕竟多数语言现象还是我们日常英语学习中所耳濡目染的，只不 过我们许多英语学习者没
有考究过它们形成的理论根据，来龙去脉而已。
所以，为了使自己的 英语更加规范，让自己能用英语更准确、有效地传递信息、表达思想，英语专业的学生还是很有必要把这门课程学 好。
现在我们就结合《现代英语语法》教材，近几年英语语法专业考试试题，讲述英语语法考试中考生 容易忽略的测试要点或难点。
我们先通过几道语法题来检测你现有的现代语法水平，接着探讨一下该教 材的学习方法，最后把教材各章的要点、难点归纳给大家。在整
个讲解过程中，我们力争多采用教材里的 素材以及往年试题中的一些经典考题，以便学员在学习、归纳语法现象的同时使自己的备考收效
最大化。
先测试一下自己的现代语法水平(同时了解一下英语语法考试的题型、结构；每年考试形式基本相同，有 些部分稍有调整。为了节省篇幅，
这里各部分只选取几个样题)
The Pre- course Quiz
I、单项选择题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分）
Choose the best answer from the choices given:
1. In the end, he __________.
a. got invited b. gets invited c. was invited d. was to be invited
2. Do what I tell you --__________!
a. or else b. or so c. and that d. and do
3. __________ , he managed to remain among the top 5% of his class.
a. To work hard as he did b. Working hard as he did
c. Work hard as he did d. Worked hard as he did
4._____ there be life on Mars? (p171)
a. May b. Can c. Might d. Ought
_____ have dinner with us, will you?(p263)
a. to b. or c. and d. here
_____ be shocked at the news.(p168)
a. should well b. must well c. may well d. can well
7. You have to wait a minute, ______?
a. haven't you b. do you
c. don't you d. shouldn't you
8. Staying in hotel cost ________ renting a room in a dormitory for a week.

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a. twice as much b. twice as much as
c. as much as twice d. twice than
9. I don't think she meant_________ you. (p206)
a. hurt b. to hurt c. hurting d. be hurt
10. ___ I worked hard at school, I ___ this kind of work now.
a. Had... wouldn't have done b. Had... wouldn't be doing
c. If... wouldn't do d. If... wouldn't be doing
II.多项选择题（本大题共5小题，每题2分，共10分）
Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below:
a, the, any, some, all
1. __________ of us decides what to take into the future and what to leave behind. That's why__________ arrival of the Year
2000 has become such a personal moment.
2. be, is, was, are ,were, will be, shall be, has, have had
a. She is one of these girls who _______ trouble running around.
b. This one of the many houses here which _______ destroyed in the earthquake.
3. seem, seems, me, I, mine
Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____. (p59)
4. less, less of, than, as, like
Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee. (p237)
III.填空题（本大题共20小题，每题1分，共20分）
Fill in the blank with an appropriate coordinator or subordinator:
1. It was an island __________ name I have forgotten.
2. He carried his luggage all the way home, __________ was actually unnecessary.
3. He soon made it clear __________ he had asked for a meeting.
4. The police arrived, after __________ the situation became calmer.
Fill in the blanks with proper words:
5.I like Australia best _______ all the English-speaking countries.
6.I made a comparison _______ the major English speaking countries.(p251)
IV.改错题（本大题共8小题，每小题1分，共8分）
Correct errors in the following sentences:
1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading made a full man.
2. Go and get some fresh air! You were sitting here all morning.
all of Paris welcomed the general. (p79)
4. I've got five brothers, and every of them is quite different from the others.
5. None of my parents are interested in my idea. (p344)
V.改写句子（本大题共14小题，每题2分，共28分）
Rewrite the following sentences as required:
1. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause:
You sent my son an English-Chinese dictionary. Thank you very much.
2. Combining the sentences into one that contains a relative clause:
Twenty horses were put into the corral. They were to be trained for riding.
e the sentences into one that contains a relative clause:(p289)
My boss is a very considerate person. His predecessor was not a considerate person at all.
e the following sentence using whatever cohesive device is appropriate:
A: Is John trying to enter Harvard Law School?
B: No, I don't think John is trying to enter Harvard Law School. He hates lawyers.
5. Use discontinuity:
Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful than expected to children.
VI.名词解释（本大题共2小题，每小题2分，共4分）
Define the following terms with examples:
1. Non-finite verbs
2. Determiners
VII.简答题（本大题共5小题，每小题2分，共10分）
1. What are inherent adjectives?
2. Can HOW - exclamations be used to highlight the noun? If not, what can HOW - questions highlight?
Key to the pre- course quiz
I. 单项选择题（每小题1分，共20分）
1、a 2、a 3、b 4、b 5、c 6、c 7、c 8、b 9、b 10、b
II. 多项选择填空题（每小题2分，共10分，）
1. Each, the （共2分，一格1分）
2. have, were（共2分，一格1分）
3. seem, mine（共2分，一格1分）
4. less of, than（共2分，一格1分）
III. 填空题（每题1分，共20分）
1. whose
2. which
3. why
4. which
5. among
n
IV. 改错题（每小题1分，共8分）

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Correct errors in the following sentences:
1. Francis Bacon wrote that reading makes a full man.
2. Go and get some fresh air! You have been sitting here all morning.
whole of Paris welcomed the general.
4. I've got five brothers, and each of them is quite different from the others.
5. Neither of my parents are interested in my idea.

V. 改写句子（每题2分，共28分）
1. Thank you very much for the English-Chinese dictionary you sent my son.
2. Twenty horses that were to be trained for riding were put into the corral.
3. My boss is a very considerate person, which his predecessor was not at all.
4. No, I don't think so. He hates lawyers.
5. Excessive exposure to violence on TV is more harmful to children than expected.
VI. 名词解释（每题2分，共4分）
1. The non-finite verbs are verbs that are not marked for tense or for subject-verb concord.
2. Determiners refer to words which are used in the pre-modification of a noun phrase and which typically precede any adjectives
that pre- modify the head word.
VII. 简答题（每小题2分，共10分）
1. Generally speaking, adjectives denoting inherent qualities characterize the referent of the noun. e.g. A big house refers
to a house whose size is big.
2. No, they can't. They can highlight the adjectives, adverb or verb.

第二部分：教材的学习与使用
一． 首先，仔细研读教材后面所附录的《高等教 育自学考试英语语法自学考试大纲》，做到学习重点、考试要求了然于心。
二． 由于教材涉及的术语 较多，考试时所有的考题均用英文表述，学员必须熟记这些术语。可参照书后《课程内容与考核目标》所列
出的主要概念中英文对照。如：词素（morphemes），词缀法(affixation), 修饰性状语(adjunct) ，评注性状语(disjunct)等。
三． 对于每个概念，术语 ，都要做到能用简单的英语解释，最好能用书中的定义进行解释。语法考试中就有一部分要检查考生对概念
的理解及记忆。如：（1）Morpheme(p4): A morpheme is the minimal distinctive grammatical unit, and is the lowest unit in grammatical
hierarchy. Morphemes are actually abstract elements of analysis. What occurs is an orthographic form in writing termed “morph”
which realizes the morp heme.(词素是语法的最小区别性单位,即最低一级的语法单位.词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素.词素是 抽象的
形式成分，在不同的环境中由若干不同的形素来体现) （2）Mass nouns(p57): Those nouns that can not take plural forms are mass
nouns, such as butter, cheese, homework music, etc. (没有复数形式的名词叫物质名词)
四． 在理解的基 础上，熟记教材上的例句。从以往的试卷分析来看，很多考题就是教材上的原句或略作变动。例如：在全国200 3年4
月高等教育自学考试英语语法试题第Ⅱ. 多项选择填空题(本大题共8小题，每小题2分，共16分)中，几乎所有的题目均能从书中找出：
Fill in the blanks with one of the items given below:
21. bank, bunch, congregation, pack, series（P65）
A. a _____ of musicians
B. a___ of lectures
22. board, bunch, choir, packet, party（P66）
A. a ______ of guests
B. a______ of keys
23. is, are, was, were, will be, shall be（P344）
Some money _____ carried to the spot and all the food and everything else _____ ready for the picnic.
24. seem, seems, me, I, mine（P59）
Your politics _____ to be entirely different from _____.
25. less, less of, than, as, like（P237）
Mr. Smith is _____ a politician ______ Mr. Lee.
26. more of, many of, much of, than, as, like（P236）
John is as _____ a fool _____ Bill.
27. be, is, was, are, were, will be, shall be
A. That she is still alive ______ sheer luck.
B. Neither his oral statement nor what he wrote _____ true.
28. have, has, had, will have, shall have（P346）
A. She is the only one of her family who ______ trouble making up the mind.
B. This is the only family in the community who ____ different opinions while making up the mind.
五． 每一章后面设计 的练习题也非常重要，学员要做到每一题都能够理解，作答正确。许多题目被用作以往的考题，将来的试卷同样< br>会从中选择不少题目。
六． 勤于动手，加强实践。该教程共分十六章，学习时可以把每一章节 的重点概念摘录出来，把重点例句归纳出来，供自己复习巩固。
只有这样，才能让自己掌握好各章节的精 华。我们不主张大家去找别的语法练习来训练，因为采取不同的语法体系编辑的练习题有可能差
距很大。 教材上的例句及练习题稍作变动就可以产生无数的新语法题，足以让同学得到充分地训练。
七． 善于 请教，多方求索。学员对自己学习过程中弄不清楚的问题，可以与别的学员共同商讨，或请教老师。互联网也是一 种很好的
助学手段，但不要在那上面花太多的精力，因为那里的东西庞杂而良莠不齐。只要通过 ‘’ 或 ‘’，输
入你想搜寻的内容的关键词, 如：‘自考语法’；‘语法考试’等，它们就会为你提供大量的网站或网页供你登陆或浏览。
八． 学 会归纳、总结。学习任何东西都应该多动脑筋。死记硬背得来的东西往往遗忘也很快，理解基础上熟记的东西才能 长时间为主
人服务。为什么“A book is on the desk..” 不对而“ On the desk is a book.” 正确；为什么“There is a bus over there.”是
存在句，“There comes the bus”是倒装句；什么情况下 ‘family’ 之后的动词用复数，什么情况下 ‘family’ 之后的动词用单数。
这些只有在理解的基础上，通过归纳总结才能真正牢记住。


第三部分：教材的重点与难点归纳
Chapter 1 The Structure

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of the English Sentence
(第一章 绪 论)
一、 难点、重点
1. Present the grammatical units that form a hierarchical order.
(指出构成层次结构的语法单位.)
Answer: The grammatical units that form a hierarchical order are explained and shown as follows:
Higher | A sentence consists of one or more clauses
| A clause consists of one or more phrases
| A phrase consists of one or more words
Lower | A word
From the macro-grammatical point of view, we can come to a hierarchical structure as:
Higher | A text consists of one or more sentences
| A sentence consists of one or more clauses
| A clause consists of one or more phrases
| A phrase consists of one or more words
| A word consists of one or more morphemes
Lower | A morpheme
英语句子的结构层次是：分句(clauses)、词组(phrases )、单词(words)，图示如下：
高级层次 句子(由一个或多个分句组成)
分句(由一个或多个词组组成)
词组(由一个或多个词组成)
低级层次 词
图1.1语法单位的层次(Leech等，1982：27)

如果从语义的角度来考 虑，单词以下还可再分为词素(morphemes)；句子以上还有更大的语言单位，即把句子按一定逻辑规则 组织起来的
语篇。所以，从超语法的角度来看，语法层次结构可以如下图所示：
高级层次 语篇(由广个或多个句子组成)
句子(由一个或多个分句组成)
分句(由一个或多个扣组组成)
词组(由一个或多个词组成)
词(由一个或多个词素组成)
低级层次 词素
图1.2 扩大的语法层次结构图
2． Morphemes词素 (Terms: morpheme, morph, allomorph, free morpheme and bound morpheme)
（注：此部分内容的学习可以借鉴‘词汇学’的相关内容，然而必须注意两门课程描述的不同点。）
什么是词素(morpheme)?词素是语法的最小区别性单位，即最低一级的语法单位。
词素的语音或拼写法的体现叫形素(morph)。词素是一种抽象形式的成分，在不同的环境中一个词素可以由 若干个不同的形素体现，如英
语中的复数词素可以表现为／s，z，iz／。
某一词素在不同 的环境中可以用不同的变体或词素变体(allomorph)表示。所谓词素变体是指词素的非区别性变体，几 个不同的变体一起
构成一个词素。
词素又分为自由词素和粘附词素。自由词素(free m orpheme)是指本身具有完整意义，可以独立使用的词素。它可以是简单的单词，如boy，
gi rl，do，so等，也可以是派生词的词根，如im-polite，self- ish等。自由词素具有较强的构词能力。
粘附词素 (bound morpheme)是指没有完 整意义不能独立使用的词素。粘附词素只表示一种附加意义或语法意义，这种词素不能单独存在
和使用， 只有粘附在其他词素(主要是自由词素)上才能表示出它的意义。粘附词素的主要功能是在构词中充当词缀，如u nfriendliness
中的un-，-ly，-ness等。
clauses and infinite clauses (限定性分句与非限定性分句,定义参见下面的简答题部分)
注意这里分句的概念与传统语法的区别，特别是非限定性分句。
Finite Clauses
(1)名词性分句
What he said was incredible.
(2)关系分句
This is one of the best books I’ve ever read.
(3)状语分句
If I were in your shoes, I wouldn’t quit.

Non-finite clauses：
(1) 非限定性名词性分句：
She didn’t know what to say．
(2)非限定性关系分句：
The man standing by the window is her brother.
(3) 非限定性状语分句：
Published ten years ago，this is still the best dictionary．
二、 重要概念
1. morpheme (参见第一部分测试题)
2. parsing：Breaking a sentence into smaller components for analysis and then grouping them into various classes
in a systematic way.
把一个句子中的各种词按语法范畴给出名称一如主语、宾语、动词、 性、数、格等一叫做句子成分分析(parsing)。
3. Define the complex sentence
The complex sentence is a sentence that contains more than one clause
that are joined together by subordinating one to another．[复杂句是用
从属连词(如if, when, though等)连接的一个以上分句的句子.]

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三、 典型考题
I. 选择题
1. There are ( ) morphemes in “gunfighter”.
A. two B. three
C. four D. one
2. In “He downed his beer and punched me on the nose. ” “downed” belongs to ( ) . (P13)
A. backformation B. clipping
C. conversion D. blending
3. Suffixes basically change ( ) .
A. word meaning B. word class
C. nothing D. word formation
4. The prefix“uni-” means ( ) .
A. without B. self
C. false D. one
Key: 1. B 2. C 3. B 4. D
II. 简答题
1. In terms of which three factors are words classified?
The three factors are: the environment where words occur, their internal structure and their meaning.
2. Define the finite clauses and the non-finite clauses.
The finite clauses are the ones that have subjects and finite verbs as
predicates．The non-finite clauses are the ones that leave subjects
unsaid and verbs in non-finite forms．(限定分句是主语加限定动词作谓语的分句。 非限定分句是省略主语而动词以非限定
形式出现(主语省略是因为其前面或后面已有主语。)

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