软弱无力-导针
1. Pragmatics is the study of language in
use.
Pragmatics is concerned with the study
of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or
writer) and interpreted by a
listener (or
reader).
Pragmatics is the study of speaker
meaning
Pragmatics is the study of contextual
meaning
Pragmatics is the study of the
expression of relative distance.
Pragmatics is
the study of the relationships between linguistic
forms and the users of those forms.
2. Syntax
is the study of the relationships between
linguistic forms, how they are arranged in
sequence, and which
sequences are well-formed.
3. Semantics is the study of the relationships
between linguistic forms and entities in the
world; that is, how words
literally connect to
things.
4. Deixis 指示语 is a technical term
(from Greek) for one of the most basic things we
do with utterances. It means
‘pointing’ via
language. Any linguistic form used to accomplish
this ‘pointing’ is called a deictic expression.
Deictic
expressions are also sometimes called
indexicals. They are among the first forms to be
spoken by very young children
and can be used
to indicate people via person deixis (such as,
‘me’, ‘you’), or location via spatial deixis (such
as ‘here’,
‘there’), or time via temporal
deixis (such as ‘now’, ‘then’).
5. Proximal
terms近指 are typically interpreted in terms of the
speaker’s location, or the deictic center指示中心.
‘this’,
‘there’, ‘now’, ‘then’ near speaker
6. Distal terms远指can simply indicate ‘away’
from speaker’, but, in some languages, can be used
to distinguish
between ‘near addressee’ and
‘away from both speaker and addressee’.
7.
Person deixis人称指示语clearly operates on a basic
three-part division, exemplified例证 by the pronouns
for first
person, second person, and third
person. forms used to point to people, “me””you”
8. Expressions which indicate addressee higher
status are described as honorifics敬语.
9. The
discussion of the circumstances which lead to the
choice of one of these forms rather than another
is sometimes
described as social used to
indicate relative social status
10. A
distinction between forms used for familiar versus
a non-familiar addressee in some languages. This
is known as the
TV distinction.
用复数形态来表示单数敬语,在语言中叫 T-V distinction。此概念由 1960
年的学者 Brown 和 Gilman 提出,
他们将第二人称单数分为两种形态:T
形态(T-form)和 V 形态(V-form),前者在非正式场合、尊称呼卑、
关系亲密的人之
间使用,后者在正式场合、下级称呼上级、称呼陌生人的时候使用
11. exclusive
‘we’ (speaker plus other(s), excluding addressee);
inclusive ‘we’ (speaker and addressee
included).
12. spatial deixis空间指示语- the
relative location of people and things is being
indicated. Eg, here, there forms used to
point
to location.
13. ‘Yonder’那边 (more distant from
speaker)
‘hither’这边 (to this place)
‘thence’从那里 (from that place)
14. deictic
projection指示投射 manipulate speaker’s location eg: I
am not here rs acting as if they are
somewhere
else.
15. psychological distance 心理距离I don’t
like that. it is ‘invested’ with meaning in a
context by a r’s
marking of how close or
distant something is perceived感知 to be.
16.
temporal deixis 时间指示 Back in an hour. the coming
week. forms used to point to location in time
17. It is clear that the present tense is the
proximal form近端形式 and the past tense is the distal
form远端形式.
if-clauses
18. In temporal
deixis, the remote or distal form can be used to
communicate not only distant from current time,
but also
distant from current reality or
facts.
19. Discourse deixis textual
deixis语篇指示语 “the use of expressions within some
utterance to refer to some portion
部分 of the
discourse that contains that utterance (including
the utterance itself)” This is what he did to me.
He ripped
撕扯
my shirt and hit me on the
nose
20. We might best think of
reference as an act in which a speaker, or writer,
uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or
reader, to identify something.
21.
Reference, then, is clearly tied to the speaker’s
goals (for example, to identify something) and the
speaker’s beliefs (i.e.
can the listener be
expected to know that particular something?) in
the use of language.
22. Those linguistic
forms are referring expressions所指词语, linguistic
form which enables a listener, or reader, to
identify something. which can be proper
nouns专有名词 (for example, Shakespear’, Cathy
Revuelto’, ‘Hawaii’), noun
phrases 名词短语which
are definite (for example, ‘the author’, ‘the
singer’, ‘the island’), or indefinite (for
example, ‘a
man’, ‘a woman’, ‘a beautiful
place’), and pronouns代词 (for example, ‘he’, ‘her’,
‘it’ , ‘them’ ).
23. Inference 推断 不在了-死了
24. attributive use归属性用法using an expression to
identify someone or something without being
committed to the
existence of an actual person
or thing. meaning ‘whoeverwhatever fits the
description. There’s a man waiting for
you.
不确定的
25. referential use 指称性用法 using
an expression to identify someone or something
when the person or thing is
assumed to be
known. whereby I actually have a person in mind
and, instead of using her name or some other
description . He wants to marry a woman with
lots of money(The word ‘a’ could be replaced by
‘any’) 确定的
26. name & referents对象
There
appears to be a pragmatic connection between
proper names专有名词 and objects that will be
conventionally
associated, within a socio-
culturally defined community, with those names.
Using a proper name referentially to
identify
any such object invites the listener to make the
expected inference (for example, from name of
writer to book
by writer) and thereby show
himself or herself to be a member of the same
community as the speaker.
a. Brazil wins World
Cup. Brazil-soccer team
b. Japan wins first
round of trade talks. Japan-government
27.
The linguistic material, or co-text, accompanying
the referring expression. the linguistic
environment in which a word
is used.
28.
The referring expression actually provides a range
of reference所指范围, that is, a number of possible
referents.
29. Co-text is just a linguistic
part of the environment in which a referring
expression is used. The physical environment, or
context (physical environment in which a word
is used), is perhaps more easily recognized as
having a powerful impact on
how referring
expressions are to be interpreted.
30.
Reference is not simply a relationship between the
meaning of a word or phrase and an object or
person in the world.
It is a social act, in
which the speaker assumes that the word or phrase
chosen to identified an object or person will be
interpreted as the speaker intended.
31.
The definite noun phrases such as, ‘the man’, ‘the
cat’, ‘the woman’ and the pronouns such as, ‘it’,
‘he’, ‘her’, ‘they’,
are examples of
subsequent reference后续参考to already introduced
referents, generally known as anaphoric
reference
照应前项的参考, or anaphora. In technical
terms, the second of subsequent随后的 expression is
anaphor (the word
used to maintain reference
to someone or something already mentioned) and the
initial expression used to identify
someone or
something is the antecedent前情.
Pell and slice
six potatoes
前情
. Put them
照应前项的参考
in
cold salted water.
32. And ‘it’ is used first
and is difficult to interpret until the full noun
phrase is presented in the next line. This pattern
is
technically known as cataphora (the use of
a word to introduce someone or something that via
more fully identified later)
回指 下指, and is much
less common than anaphora.
I turned the corner
and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake
in the middle of the path.
33. When the
interpretation requires us to identify an entity
and no linguistic expression in present, it is
called zero
anaphora, or ellipsis省略. The use
of zero anaphora as means of maintaining reference
clearly creates an expectation that
the
listener will be able to infer who or what the
speaker intends to identify. Cook?for three
minutes
U4书
34. Tautology同意反复 赘言(an
apparently meaningless expression in which one
word is defined as itself)clearly the
speaker
intends to communicate more than is
said.
‘
business is business’ or ‘boys will
be boys’
35. That something must be more than
just what the words mean. It is an additional
conveyed meaning, called an
implicature含义. The
implicature intended in this context.
书后
‘
business is business’ or ‘boys will be
boys’
36. cooperative principle make
your conversational contribution such as is
required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the
accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchanging in which you are engaged.
书后
Quantity
Make your contribution as
informative is required (for the current purposes
of the exchange).
Do not make your
contribution more informative than is required.
Quality
Try to make your contribution one
that is true.
Do not say what you believe to
be false.
Do not say that for which you lack
adequate evidence.
Relation
Be relevant
Manner
Be perspicuous清晰明白的.
Avoid
obscurity模糊 of expression.
Avoid ambiguity.
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity啰嗦)
Be orderly.
37. There are certain
kinds of expressions speakers use to mark that
they may be in danger of not fully adhering to坚持
the principles. These kinds of expressions are
called hedges. (闪烁其辞,模棱两可)
书后
.
He couldn’t live without her, I guess.
38.
When no special knowledge is required in the
context to calculate the additional conveyed
meaning, it is called a
generalized
conversational implicature.
书后
I was
sitting in a garden one day. A child looked over
the fence.
39. A number of other
generalized conversational implicatures are
commonly communicated on the basis of scale of
values and are consequently known as scalar
implicatures.等级含义 I’m studying linguistics and
I’ve completed some(not
all, most many) of the
required courses.
The basis of
scalar implicature is that, when any form in a
scale is asserted, the negative of all forms
higher on the scale is
implicated.
40.
Most of the time, our conversations take place in
very specific contexts in which locally recognized
inferences are
assumed. Such inferences are
required to worked out the conveyed meanings which
result from particularized
conversational
implicatures.
书后
Rick: Hey, coming to the
wild party tonight? Tom: My parents are visiting.
46. Politeness concerns a relationship
between two participants whom we may call self and
other. Speakers also show
politeness to third
parties, who may or may not be present in the
speech situation
47. I. Tact Maxim得体准则 a.
Minimize cost to other b. Maximize benefit to
other I can lend you my car
II. Generosity
Maxim慷慨准则 a. Minimize benefit to self b. Maximize
cost to self Could I borrow this electric drill?
III. Approbation Maxim 赞许准则a. Minimize
dispraise指责 of other b. Maximize praise of other
A: Her performance was outstanding!
B: Yes, wasn’t it!
IV. Modesty
Maxim谦逊准则a. Minimize praise of self b. Maximize
dispraise of self How stupid of me!
V.
Agreement Maxim一致准则 a. Minimize disagreement
between self and other b. Maximize agreement
between
self and other
A: A
referendum
公民投票
will satisfy everybody.
B: Yes, definitely.
VI.
Sympathy Maxim同情准则 a. Minimize antipathy反感 between
self and other b. Maximize sympathy between
self and other. I’m sorry to hear about your
cat.
A: English is a difficult language
to learn.
B: True, but the grammar is quite
easy.
鲮-幼稚的反义词
concurrent-四年级语文学习辅导
破坏的英文-铁和稀硝酸
rung-绵羊猪
facture-姿势的意思
obviously是什么意思-although和though的区别
语文试卷分析-讪笑的近义词
乜斜-哉的意思
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