英语短语大全初中-降临的近义词
1. Pragmatics is the study of language in
use.
Pragmaticsis concerned with the study of
meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer)
and interpreted by a
listener (or reader).
Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning
Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning
Pragmaticsis the study of the expression of
relative distance.
Pragmatics is the study of
the relationships between linguistic forms and the
users of those forms.
2. Syntax is the study
of the relationships between linguistic forms, how
they are arranged in sequence, and which
sequences are well-formed.
3. Semantics is
the study of the relationships between linguistic
forms and entities in the world; that is, how
words
literally connect to things.
4.
Deixis指示语 is a technical term (from Greek) for one
of the most basic things we do with utterances. It
means
‘pointing’ via language. Any linguistic
form used to accomplish this ‘pointing’ is called
a deictic expression. Deictic
expressions are
also sometimes called indexicals. They are among
the first forms to be spoken by very young
children
and can be used to indicate people
via person deixis (such as, ‘me’, ‘you’), or
location via spatial deixis (such as ‘here’,
‘there’), or time via temporal deixis (such as
‘now’, ‘then’).
5. Proximal terms近指are
typically interpreted in terms of the speaker’s
location, or the deictic center指示中心.‘this’,
‘there’, ‘now’, ‘then’near speaker
6.
Distal terms远指can simply indicate ‘away’ from
speaker’, but, in some languages, can be used to
distinguish
between ‘near addressee’ and ‘away
from both speaker and addressee’.
7. Person
deixis人称指示语clearly operates on a basic three-part
division, exemplified例证 by the pronouns for first
person, second person, and third person. forms
used to point to people, “me””you”
8.
Expressions which indicate addressee higher status
are described as honorifics敬语.
9. The
discussion of the circumstances which lead to the
choice of one of these forms rather than another
is sometimes
described as social used to
indicate relative social status
10. A
distinction between forms used for familiar versus
a non-familiar addressee in some languages. This
is known as the
TV distinction.
用复数形态来表示单数敬语,在语言中叫 T-V distinction。此概念由 1960
年的学者 Brown 和 Gilman 提出,
他们将第二人称单数分为两种形态:T
形态(T-form)和 V 形态(V-form),前者在非正式场合、尊称呼卑、
关系亲密的人之
间使用,后者在正式场合、下级称呼上级、称呼陌生人的时候使用
11. exclusive
‘we’ (speaker plus other(s), excluding addressee);
inclusive ‘we’ (speaker and addressee
included).
12. spatial deixis空间指示语- the
relative location of people and things is being ,
here,there forms used to
point to location.
13. ‘Yonder’那边 (more distant from speaker)
‘hither’这边 (to this place)
‘thence’从那里
(from that place)
14. deictic
projection指示投射manipulate speaker’s locationeg: I
am not here rs acting as if they are
somewhere
else.
15. psychological distance心理距离I don’t
like that. it is ‘invested’ with meaning in a
context by a r’s
marking of how close or
distant something is perceived感知 to be.
16.
temporal deixis时间指示Back in an hour. the coming
week. forms used to point to location in time
17. It is clear that the present tense is the
proximal form近端形式 and the past tense is the distal
form远端形
式.if-clauses
18. In temporal
deixis, the remote or distal form can be used to
communicate not only distant from current time,
but also
distant from current reality or
facts.
19. Discourse deixis textual
deixis语篇指示语 “the use of expressions within some
utterance to refer to some portion
部分 of the
discourse that contains that utterance (including
the utterance itself)”This is what he did to me.
He ripped
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撕扯
my shirt and
hit me on the nose
20. We might best think of
reference as an act in which a speaker, or writer,
uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or
reader, to identify something.
21.
Reference, then, is clearly tied to the speaker’s
goals (for example, to identify something) and the
speaker’s beliefs (i.e.
can the listener be
expected to know that particular something?) in
the use of language.
22. Those linguistic
forms are referring expressions所指词语, linguistic
form which enables a listener, or reader, to
identify can be proper nouns专有名词 (for
example, Shakespear’, Cathy Revuelto’, ‘Hawaii’),
noun
phrases名词短语which are definite (for
example, ‘the author’, ‘the singer’, ‘the
island’), or indefinite (for example, ‘a
man’,
‘a woman’, ‘a beautiful place’), and pronouns代词
(for example, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘it’ , ‘them’ ).
23. Inference 推断不在了-死了
24. attributive
use归属性用法using an expression to identify someone or
something without being committed to the
existence of an actual person or thing.
meaning ‘whoeverwhatever fits the ’s a man waiting
for you.
不确定的
25. referential use指称性用法using
an expression to identify someone or something
when the person or thing is
assumed to be
known. whereby I actually have a person in mind
and, instead of using her name or some other
description . He wants to marry a woman with
lots of money(The word ‘a’ could be replaced by
‘any’) 确定的
26. name& referents对象
There
appears to be a pragmatic connection between
proper names专有名词 and objects that will be
conventionally
associated, within a socio-
culturally defined community, with those names.
Using a proper name referentially to
identify
any such object invites the listener to make the
expected inference (for example, from name of
writer to book
by writer) and thereby show
himself or herself to be a member of the same
community as the speaker.
a. Brazil wins World
-soccer team
b. Japan wins first round of
trade -government
27. The linguistic material,
or co-text, accompanying the referring expression.
the linguistic environment in which a word
is
used.
28. The referring expression actually
provides a range of reference所指范围, that is, a
number of possible referents.
29. Co-text is
just a linguistic part of the environment in which
a referring expression is used. The physical
environment, or
context(physical environment
in which a word is used), is perhaps more easily
recognized as having a powerful impact on
how
referring expressions are to be interpreted.
30. Referenceis not simply a relationship
between the meaning of a word or phrase and an
object or person in the world. It
is a social
act, in which the speaker assumes that the word or
phrase chosen to identified an object or person
will be
interpreted as the speaker intended.
31. The definite noun phrases such as, ‘the
man’, ‘the cat’, ‘the woman’ and the pronouns such
as, ‘it’, ‘he’, ‘her’, ‘they’,
are examples of
subsequent reference后续参考to already introduced
referents, generally known as anaphoric
reference
照应前项的参考, or anaphora. In technical
terms, the second of subsequent随后的 expression is
anaphor(the word
used to maintain reference to
someone or something already mentioned) and the
initial expression used to identify
someone or
something is the antecedent前情.
Pell and slice
six potatoes
前情
. Put them
照应前项的参考
in
cold salted water.
32. And ‘it’ is used first
and is difficult to interpret until the full noun
phrase is presented in the next line. This pattern
is
technically known as cataphora(the use of a
word to introduce someone or something that via
more fully identified later)
回指下指, and is much
less common than anaphora.
I turned the corner
and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake
in the middle of the path.
33. When the
interpretation requires us to identify an
entityand no linguistic expression in present, it
is called zero
anaphora, or ellipsis省略. The
use of zero anaphora as means of maintaining
reference clearly creates an expectation that
the listener will be able to infer who or what
the speaker intends to ?for three minutes
U4书
34. Tautology同意反复赘言(an apparently
meaninglessexpression in which one word is defined
as itself)clearly the
speaker intendsto
communicate more than is said.
‘
business is
business’ or ‘boys will be boys’
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35. That something must be more than
just what the words mean. It is an additional
conveyed meaning, called an
implicature含义.The
implicature intended in this
context.
书后‘
business is business’ or ‘boys
will be boys’
ative principlemake your
conversational contribution such as is required,
at the stage at which it occurs, by the
accepted purpose or direction of the talk
exchanging in which you are engaged.
书后
Quantity
Make your contribution as
informative isrequired (for the current purposes
of the exchange).
Do not make your
contribution more informative than is required.
Quality
Try to make your contribution one
that is true.
Do not say what you believe to
be false.
Do not say that for which you lack
adequate evidence.
Relation
Be relevant
Manner
Be perspicuous清晰明白的.
Avoid
obscurity模糊of expression.
Avoid ambiguity.
Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity啰嗦)
Be orderly.
37. There are certain kinds of
expressions speakers use to mark that they may be
in danger of not fully adhering to坚持
the
principles. These kinds of expressions are called
hedges. (闪烁其辞,模棱两可)
书后
. He couldn’t
live without her, I guess.
38. When no special
knowledge is required in the context to calculate
the additional conveyed meaning, it is called a
generalized conversational
implicature.
书后
I was sitting in a garden
one day. A child looked over the fence.
39. A
number of other generalized conversational
implicatures are commonly communicated on the
basis of scale of
values and are consequently
known as scalar implicatures.等级含义I’m studying
linguistics and I’ve completed some(not
all,
most many) of the required courses.
The
basis of scalar implicature is that, when any form
in a scale is asserted, the negative of all forms
higher on the scale is
implicated.
40.
Most of the time, our conversations take place in
very specific contexts in which locally recognized
inferences are
assumed. Such inferences are
required to worked out the conveyed meanings which
result from particularized
conversational
implicatures.
书后
Rick: Hey, coming to the
wild party tonight?Tom: My parents are visiting.
ness concerns a relationship between two
participants whom we may call self and rs also
show
politeness to third parties, who may or
may not be present in the speech situation
47.
I. Tact Maxim得体准则 a. Minimize cost to otherb.
Maximizebenefit to otherI can lend you my car
II. Generosity Maxim慷慨准则a. Minimize benefit to
selfb. Maximize cost to selfCould I borrow this
electric drill?
III. Approbation Maxim赞许准则a.
Minimize dispraise指责of otherb. Maximize praise of
other
A: Her performance was outstanding!
B: Yes, wasn’t it!
IV. Modesty Maxim谦逊准则a.
Minimize praise of selfb. Maximize dispraise of
selfHow stupid of me!
ent Maxim一致准则 a.
Minimize disagreement between self and otherb.
Maximize agreement between self
and other
A: A referendum
公民投票
will satisfy
everybody.
B: Yes, definitely.
VI.
Sympathy Maxim同情准则a. Minimize antipathy反感 between
self and otherb. Maximize sympathy between self
and other.I’m sorry to hear about your cat.
A: English is a difficult language to learn.
B: True, but the grammar is quite easy.
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