fwd是什么意思-二十用英语怎么说

英语词汇学笔记之“名词解释篇”
--- A word is a minimal free form of a
language that has a given sound and
meaning
and syntactic funtion.
2. Morpheme --- A
morpheme is the minimal significant element in the
composition
of words.
3. Free morphemes
or Content morphemes (Free root) --- They are
morphemes
that may constitute words by
themselves : cat, walk.
4. Bound Morphemes or
Grammatical morphemes --- They are morphemes that
must appear with at least one other morpheme,
either bound or free : Catts, walk+ing.
5.
Bound root --- A bound root is that part of the
word that carries the fundamental
meaning just
like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a
bound form and has to combine
with other
morphemes to make words. Take -dict- for example:
it conveys the
meaning of or speakas a Latin
root, but not as a word. With the prefix
pre-(=before) we obtain the verb predict
meaning
6. Affixes --- Affixes are forms that
are attached to words or word elements to modify
meaning or funtion.
7. Inflectional
morphemes or Inflectional affixes --- Affixes
attaches to the end of
words to indicate
grammatical relationships are inflectional ,thus
known as
inflectional morphemes.
There is
the regular plural suffix -s(-es) which is added
to nouns such as machines,
desks.
8.
Derivational morphemes or Derivational affixes ---
Derivational affixes are
affixes added to
other morphemes to create new words.
9.
Prefixes --- Prefixes are affixes that come before
the word, such as, pre+war.
10. Suffixes ---
suffixes are affixes that come after the word, for
instance, blood+y.
Derivational morphemes
derivational affixes --- A process of forming new
words
by the addition of a word element. Such
as prefix, suffix, combing form to an already
existing word.
Prefixation ---- is the
formation of new words by adding prefix or combing
form to
the base. (It modify the lexical
meaning of the base)
Suffixation--- is the
formation of a new word by adding a suffix or
combing form to
the base and usually changing
the word-class of the base. Such as boy. Boyish
(noun-
adjective)
11. Root --- A root is
the basic form of a word which cannot be further
analysed
without total loss of identity.
12. Opaque Words--Words that are formed by one
content morpheme only and
cannot be analysed
into parts are called opaque words, such as axe,
glove.
13. Transparent Words--Words that
consist of more than one morphemes and can be
segmented into parts are called transparent
words: workable(work+able),
door-
man(door+man).
14. Morphs--
Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized
in speech by discrete
units known as morphs.
They are actual spoken, minimal carriers of
meaning.
15. Allomorps--Some morphemes are
realized by more than one morph according to
their position in a word. Such alternative
morphs are known as allomorphs. For
instance,
the morpheme of plurality {-s} has a number of
allomorphs in different
sound context, e.g. in
cats s, in bags z, in match iz.
16.
Derivation or Affixation--Affixation is generally
defined as the formation of
words by adding
word-forming or derivational affixes to stems.
This process is also
known as derivation.
17. Prefixation--Prefixation is the formation
of new words by adding prefixes to
stems.
18. Suffixation--Suffixation is the formation
of new words by adding suffixes to
stems.
19. Compounding(Compositon)--Compounding is a
process of word-formation by
which two
independent words are put together to make one
word. E.g. hen-packed;
short-sighted.
20.
Conversion--Conversion is the formation of new
words by converting words of
one class to
another class. This process of creating new words
without adding any
affixes is also called
zero-derivation. E.g. dry (a.)-->to dry.
21.
Back-formation-- is a process of word-formation by
which a word is created by
the deletion of a
supposed affix. E.g. editor entered the language
before edit.
22. Abbreviation ( shortening
)-- is a process of word-formation by which the
syllables of words are abbreviated or
shortened.
23. Abbreviation includes four
types : I. Clipped words II. Initialisms III.
Acronyms
IV. Blends.
I. Clipped words--
are those created by clipping part of a word,
leaving only a piece
of the old word. E.g.
telephone-->phone, professional-->pro.
II.
Initialisms--are words formed from the initial
letters of words and pronounced as
letters.
E.g. IMFai em ef=International Monetary Fund.
III. Acronyms--are words formed from the
initial letters of word and pronounced as
words. E.g. NATO'neito=North Atlantic Treaty
Organization.
IV. Blends--are words that are
combined by parts of other words. E.g.
smoke+fog=smog.
24. Polysemy--The same
word may have two or more different meanings. This
is
known as The word
the air
*Two
approaches to polysemy: Diachronic and Synchronic
Diachronically, we study the growth or change
in the semantic structure of a word ,
or how
the semantic structure of a word has developed
from primary meaning to the
present polysemic
state .
Synchronically, we are interested in
the comparative value of individual meanings
and the interrelation between the central
meaning and the secondary meanings.
*Two processes leading to polysemy: Radiation and
concatenation
Radiation :
Semantically, radiation is the process in which
the primary or central
meaning stands at the
center while secondary meanings radiate from it in
every
direction like rays.
Concatenation
: is a semantic process in which the meaning of a
word moves
gradually away from its first sense
by successive shifts, like the links of a chain,
untill
there is no connection between the
sense that is finally developed and the primary
meaning.
25. Homonyms--are generally
defined as words different in meaning but either
identical both in sound and spelling or
identical『a.同一的,完全相同的』 only in
sound or
spelling.
26. Perfect Homonyms--are words
identical both in sound and spelling,but different
in meaning。
E.g. bear n. a large heavy
animal;
bear v. to put up with
27.
Homographs--are words identical only in spelling
but different in sound and
meaning. E.g.
sow s3u v. to scatter seeds
sow sau n.
female adult pig
28. Homophones--are words
identical only insound but different in spelling
and
meaning. E.g.
dear di3 n. a loved
person
deer di3 n. a kind of animal
29.
Synonyms--can be defined as words different in
sound and spelling but most
nearly alike or
exactly the same in meaning. E.g.
maid girl
They are the same meaning of
30.
Absolute(Complete, Perfect)Synonyms--are words
which are identical in
meaning in all its
aspects, i.e. both in grammatical meaning and
lexical meaning,
including conceptual and
associative meanings. For instance, composition
compounding They have the perfect same meaning
in Lexicology.
31. Relative (near,partial)
synonyms--are similar or nearly the same in
denotation ,but embrace different shades of
meaning or different degrees of a given
quality.
Take staggerreeltotter for
example. Stagger implies unsteady movement
characterized by a loss of balance and failure
to maintain a fixed course. E.g. stagger
under
a heavy load; Reel suggests a swaying or lurching
so as to appear on the verge
of falling. E.g.
The drunken man reeled down the hall; Totter
indicates the uncertain,
faltering steps of a
feeble old person or of an infant learning to
walk.
32. Sources of Synonyms
I.
Borrowing : Native (ask)--French (question)--Latin
(interrogate)
II. Dialects and regional
English: railway (BrE)--railroad (AmE)
III.
Figurative『a. 比喻的,象征的』 and euphemistic 『a.委婉的』use
of words:
occupation--walk of life (fig.)
lie--distort the fact (euph.)
IV.
Coincidence with idiomatic expressions:
win--gain the upper hand
hesitate--be in two minds
33.
Discrimination of Synonyms
I. Difference in
denotation : differ in the range and intensity of
meaning.
E.g. extend--increase--expand
(range)
want--wish--desire (intensity)
II. Difference in connotation『n.涵义,含蓄』: differ
in the stylistic and emotive
colouring.
E.g. ask (neutral); beg (colloquial); request
(formal)
III. Difference in application: in
usage.
E.g. empty box vacant seat
34. Antonymy--is concerned with semantic
opposition.
35. Antonyms--are words which are
opposite in meaning.
36. Types of Antonyms
I. Contradictory terms: mutually opposed;
true oppositeness of meaning; no
possibility
between them; E.g. alive--dead; present--
absent
II. Contrary terms: gradable
E.g. rich--(well-to-do)--poor;
hot--(warm,cool)--cold
III. Relative terms:
relational oppositeness
E.g. parent--
child; husband--wife; sell--buy
IV.
Semantic incompatibles: contrastingness.
E.g. north,south,east,west;
spring,summer,autumn,winter.
37. Hyponymy--
deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.
That is , the
meaning of a more specific word
is included in that of another more general word.
These specific words are known as hyponyms.
For instance, tulip and rose are
hyponyms of
flower. The general word flower is the
superordinate term and the
specific ones tulip
and rose are the subordinate terms.
38.
Extension of meaning (generalization)--is a term
referring to the widening of
meaning. It is a
process by which a word which originally had a
specialized meaning
has now become
generalized. for example, originally denoted mere
39. Narrowing of
meaning(specialization)--is a term referring to
the shrinking of
meaning. It is a process by
which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower
or
specialized sense.
E.g. When garage
was first borrowed from French, it meant simply
but now
40. Elevation or
amelioration『n.改善,改良』--refers to the process by
which words
rise from humble beginnings to
positions of importance.
E.g. Marshal and
constable meant a of horsesbut now have risen to a
41. Degradation or pejoration of meaning
--It is a process whereby words of good
origin
fall into ill reputation or non-affective words
come to be used in derogatory
sense.
E.g. A wench was a
42.
Metaphor『n.隐喻』--is a figure of speech containing
an implied comparison, in
which a word or
phase ordinarily and primarily used of one thing
is applied to another.
E.g. the teeth of a
comb; blood bank; He has a heart of stone; The
curtain of night has
fallen.
43.
Metonymy『n.借代』--is the device in which we name
something by one of its
attributes, as in
crown for king, the White House for the President.
The kettle is
boiling. (kettle for water in
the kettle)
44. Synecdoche『n.提喻法』--means
using a part for a whole, an individual for a
class,
a material for a thing or the reverse
of any of these.
For example, bread for food,
the army for a soldier.
He is a poor
creature. --creature for man
45.
Analogy『n.类似,相似』--is a process whereby words are
created in imitation of
other words.
For
example, telethon an talkathon are created on the
model of marathon.
46. Idiom--Strictly
speaking, idioms are expressions that are not
readily
understandable from their literal
meanings of individual elements. For example, fly
off the handle (become excessively angry) and
put up with (tolerate). In a broad sense,
idioms may include colloquialisms,
catchphrases, slang expressions ,proverbs,etc.
47. Characteristics of Idioms:
I. Long
use
II. Unitary meaning; semantic unity.
III. Syntactic frozenness; structural
stability.
48. Figurative idioms--are idioms
that include metaphor. Strictly speaking, they are
true idioms. E.g. a dog in the manger.
49. Sources of Figurative idioms:
I.
Coloquialisms: big wheel (an influential or
important person)
II. Literary expressions:
to kill the fatted calf
III. Slang: in the
soup(in serious trouble)
IV. Foreign idioms:
sour grapes.
50. Motivation--accounts for the
connection between the linguistic symbol and its
meaning.
51. Onomatopoeic Motivation--
These words were created by imitating the natural
sounds or noises. For example, bang, ping-
pang, crow by cocks, etc.
52. Morphological
Motivation--Compounds and derived words are multi-
morphemic
words and the meaning of many are
the sum total of the morphemes combined. For
instance, airmail means to
53. Semantic
Motivation--refers to the mental associations
suggested by the
conceptual meaning of a word.
E.g. When we say the mouth of a river, we
associate the opening part of the river with
the mouth of a human being or an animal.
54. Etymological Motivation--The history of
the word explains the meaning of the
word
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