小衣-什么叫有理数
Types of meaning
Types of lexical changes
1.
Elevation:
词义升格
Definition: words rise from humble
beginnings to positions of importance
Some
words early in their history signify something
quite low or humble, but
change as time goes
by to designate something agreeable or pleasant.
For example: nice: ignorant---foolish---
delightful, pleasant
Marshal: a keeper
of horses---a high ranking army officer
So
elevation refers that the meaning of word changes
from the neutralnegative to
positive.
2. Old English:
It refers to the
English starting from 450 to 1100 AD. The old
English is made up of different sources of
languages spoken then – that of
Anglo-Saxons,
that of Celts, and that of Jutes, with a lot of
Latin elements used
for common people’s life.
3.
Bound morpheme:
It is
the smallest unit of grammar, a unit which cannot
occur as separate words.
They have no
independent semantic meaning; instead, they have:
? Attached meaning E.g. un-kind, hope-ful
? Grammatical meaning E.g. cat-s, slow-ly,
walk-ing, call-ed
For an exact example, in the
word “careful”, care is free morpheme, “-ful” is a
bound
morpheme.
4.
Hyponymy:
Hyponymy deals with the relationship of
semantic inclusion, or to say, the
relationship between general lexical items and
specific lexical items. That is to say,
when X
is a kind of Y, the lower term X is the“hyponym”,
and the upper term Y is
the “superordinate”.
For example, “fiction” is the superordinate of
“novel”,
“novelette” and “short story”, which
are the hyponyms of “fiction”.
Knowing the
semantic features of the hyponyms and their
superordinates can
help us achieve vividness,
exactness, and concreteness in expression.
5. Collocation:
Collocation is the
habitual juxtaposition of linearly arranged words
which
occurs multiple times to become set
ations have four features:
? They are non-
arbitrary and predictable. For example, we can say
“have tea” but
not “have engine oil”
?
They are stable and rigid. Collocations are strong
enough to exclude other
synonymous words. For
example, we can say “strong wind and heavy rain”
but
not “strong rain and heavy wind”.
?
They are culturally-loaded. Collocation reflects
the English culture and cultural
heritage,
such as “the Trojan horse” and “Pandora’s box”.
? They are Language-specific.
Collocations
can be classified into: (in terms of collocational
strength.)
weak collocations, (collocations
that have a wide variety of collocates.
Collocational range is wide.E.g.
whiteredgreenlongsmall shirt)
strong
collocations,(Collocations are strong but not
unique.E.g. moved to tears)
frozen
collocations (Collocations that are fixed and
irreplaceable, E.g. foot the
bill *foot the
coffee)
Collocations are non-
arbitrary, which means that they are motivated.
There are
four kinds of motivations:
Grammatical motivation, (Collocations serve
particular grammatical functions
in certain
grammatical structures.)
Semantic motivation,
(The meaning of the collocation depends on the
collocated
components.)
Pragmatic
motivation, (Collocations are pragmatically driven
and pragmatically
shaped. up, keep space, )
Cognitive motivation. (Metaphorical expression
beyond literal interpretation.
E.g. red-carpet
treatment, political honeymoon, bubble economy,
soft landing)
Collocation
is one important aspect of vocabulary development.
It offers the most natural way of language
use.
It provides alternative ways of language
use, which may be more colorful,
expressive or
precise.
It helps to improve the style in
writing.
6. Morpheme:
A
morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a
language. Morpheme can be
lexical or
grammatical.
A free morpheme has complete
meaning and can be used as free grammatical
units in sentences.
A bound morpheme
cannot occur as separate words. They are bound to
other
morphemes to form words.
An
inflectional morpheme is a morpheme that is used
to inflect a word. e.g.
white can be inflected
with the morphemes -r (whiter) and -est (whitest)
A derivational morpheme is a
morpheme that is used to create derivations of
words. e.g. white can form the derivation
whiten by adding the -n morpheme.
7.
Stylistic meaning:
Apart from their
conceptual meanings, many words have stylistic
features, which
make them appropriate for
different contexts. These distinctive features
form stylistic
meaning of words. In some
dictionaries ,these stylistic features are clearly
marked as
“formal”, “informal”, “ literary”,
“archaic”, “slang” and so on. This stylistic
difference is especially true of synonyms. It
is observed that there are few words
which
have both the same conceptual meaning and the
stylistic meaning.
8.
Analogy:
Analogy refers to the process by which
words or phrases are created or re-formed
according to the existing patterns in the
language.
E.g. youthquake, airbag, earthrise
earthquake, handbag, sunrise
9.
Compounding:
It is a type of word-
formation process consisting of joining two or
more bases to form
a new unit, a compound
word. It is also a productive device at every
period of the
English language. Forms of
compounds are solid, hyphenated, open. According
to the
grammatical property, there are three
types of compounds: noun compounds,
adjective
compounds, verb compounds. For instance, sleeping-
bag= sleeping + bag
(the bag for sleeping).
Today the largest number of new words are
formed by compounding.
10.
Word:
A word is defined as a minimum free
form of language with a unity of sound and
meaning, capable of preforming a given
syntactic function. A word contains three
elements: form, structural function and
meaning. Broadly speaking, all the words in a
language together constitute what is known as
vocabulary. It is very important to a
t words,
nothing can be conveyed.
11.
Superordinate:
in the case of hyponymy,
superordinate is the upper word standing for the
totality or the group. The word which is more
general in meaning is called the superordinate.
12.
Subordinate:
in the case of hyponymy, subordinate is the
lower word standing for a
member of the group.
13.
Semantic components:
They are the features in a word as far as its
concept is concerned.
Father – a word with the
conceptual features of “adult”, “male”,
“humanity”, and “animate”.
All the 4 features
are its semantic components.
14.
Derivation:
Derivation is the formation of word by adding
word-forming or derivational
affixes to stems.
For example, when the verb “care” add a suffixe
“-ful”, a new
word ”careful” is formed.
This process is also known as affixation. New
words formed in this way are
called
derivatives. According to the position affixes
occupy in words, affixation falls
into two
subcategories: prefixation and suffixation.
15.
Inflection:
The process of
changing word form for the sake of grammaticality,
without
changing its meaning.
16.
Back formation:
Backformation is a process of word-formation by
which a word is created by the
deletion of a
supposed suffix from a longer form already present
in the language. It is
also called reverse
derivation. The process of word-formation by
changing from one
form into another form, as
in “edit” from “editor”(initial word).
17.
Connotative meaning:
For
people with different cultural backgrounds, a word
might evoke different associations.
It is the
extended meaning of a word. When a word is
enlarged in meaning, its meaning is no
longer
limited to the original sense. For instance,
“torch” in certain context indicates the hope or
the ambitionspirit based on its original
sense.
The connotative meaning of a
word refers to the feeling that a word invokes.
This
differs from its dictionary definition,
which is called its
words can have similar
denotations but very different connotations. For
example, the
words
certain lengths to save
money. However,
while
18.
Affective meaning:
the
meaning of a word as decided by the person who
uses it with
hisher personal emotion. Positive
or negative sense belongs to affective meaning.
It refers to the speaker’s attitude
towards the person or thing in question. You
may address sb as an “idiot” to convey your
despise, or describe sth as “marvelous”
to
express your positive evalution. This meaning can
be conveyed into three types by
the choice of
words: commendatory, derogatory and neutral.
Extension:
It is a process by which
a word which originally had a specialized meaning
has now
become generalized, or has extended to
cover a broader and often less definite
concept.
For example, the original meaning
of manuscript is the handwriting( writing by hand
only), but nowadays, it refers to any author’s
writing whether written by hand or
typed with
a type-writer or a word-processor
A large
proportion of polysemic words of modern English
have their meanings
extended in the course of
development.
19.
Degradation
:
It is a process whereby words of good
origin or affective neutrality fall into ill
reputation or come to be used in a derogatory
sense. It is the reverse of elevation.
For
example, “sad” formerly refers to full, satisfied,
but now comes to be described
“sorrowful”.
20.
Specialization:
the meaning
is limited and reduced to certain sense. It is
also called
“narrowing”.