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英语的发展史(中英文版)

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2020-10-29 15:46
tags:是的英文

绿色和平组织-angel怎么读

2020年10月29日发(作者:周文)


一种民族语言(包括词汇)的发展与民族的历史密切可关。要了解英语语汇的发展史,不
可避免地跟整个英语的发展史,乃至英国的历史密不可分。
不列颠群岛的最早居民是凯尔特人,又称 不列颠人。公元前55年,罗马人在凯萨大帝的
率领下侵入不列颠群岛,凯尔特人被罗马人赶入威尔士和 苏格兰的深山之中。直到公元
410年,罗马占领时期才告结束。随后,来自德国北部平原的三个日耳曼 部落盎格鲁人,
撒克森人和朱特人开始来到不列颠定居。英语就是盎格鲁—撒克森人的语言。
语言史学家一般把英语的历史分为三个时期:1、古英语时期,2、中古英语时期,3、现
代英语时期 。
1、古英语时期(又称盎格鲁-萨克森时期公元450—1100年)
日尔曼部落在 不列颠定居后,名自占领一些地区。盎格鲁人占领了泰晤士河以北的英格兰
的大部分地区和苏格兰的低地 ,朱特人占领了肯特郡一带地区,撒克森人占领了泰晤士河
以南的大部分地区。各个部落建立了一些小王 国,出现了英国历史上的七国时代。直到公
元830年,阿尔弗雷德大王才统一了整个英格兰地区。由于 全国长期没有统一,所以古英
语时期存在着多种方言,主要方言有四种:西萨克森语,肯特语,莫西亚语 和北恩布里亚
语。这四种方言都曾一度占主导地位。西撒克森语保存下来的手搞最多。其它方言在形成< br>英语的过程中也起过很重要的作用。
古英语的词汇有着浓厚的日尔曼语族的特点。这主要表现 为复合法是重要的构词方法。复
合词在古英语词汇中占有显著的地位。据统计,在史诗《贝奥武夫》31 83行诗句中,竟有
1069个复合词。有些复合词中不重读部分,渐渐失去了独立地位,而演变成了词 缀,如
for-, in-, -ful 等派生法在古英语中也广泛使用。共有二十四个名词后缀、十五个形容词后
缀,-dom, -hood, -ship, -ness, -the, -ful,- ish 等词缀都可溯源到古英语时 期。古英语时期
的诗歌有一种特殊的修辞手法,即头韵(alliteration),由此产生的许多 短语一直保留到现在,
如night and main, friend or foe, a labour of love。
古英语时期有两个重要的历史事件,给英语词汇带来较大的影响。 第一件事是基督教传入
英国。公元597年,一个名叫奥古斯丁的牧师从罗马来到英国传教。罗马文化随 着基督教
传入了英国。与此同时,一批拉丁词进入了英语。
第二件事是北欧人入侵英国。从 公元790年开始,大批斯堪的那维亚人在英国定居。丹麦
国王卡纽特还一度成为英国的君主。斯堪的那 维亚人和英国人频繁交往,所以有许多斯堪
的那维亚各国的词语进入了英语。
2、中古英语时期(公元1100—1500年)
公元1066年,诺曼人在征服王威廉率 领下,横渡英吉利海峡,在哈斯丁战役中击溃了盎
格鲁-萨克森军队,英王哈路德战死,英国被征服。这 在历史上被称为诺曼征服。从此,英
国结束了分裂状态,置于中央集权的封建统治之下。谨曼征服是英国 历史上的重要转折点,
对英语的发展有巨大的影响。
诺曼征服之后,谨曼人占据了教会和政 府的一切重要职务。以后的二、三百年里,谨曼法
语成为英国的官方语言。普通人仍然讲英语,但英语的 文字记载却几乎中断。中古英语一
般右以分为两个时期,1204年后,英语逐渐恢复主导地位。136 2年英王爱德华三世首次
用英语向议会致词。十五世纪,伦敦标准方言兴起。1476年,卡克斯顿把印 刷术传入英国,


对英语拼写标准化、传播英语书面语都起了很大的推进作用。
在中古英语时期,英语历经了剧烈变化。词尾变化大多消失,名词的性也消失了。词序,
虚词和语调成 了表示句子关系的主要手段。如果说古一英语与其它日尔曼语族的语言一样
是典型的综合语,那么到了中 古英语末期,英语已逐渐具有分析语的特性。而且这个趋势
一直在继续着。
词汇方面的变化 也是显著的。由于诺曼法语一度是英国统治阶级的语言,大批法语词涌入
英语。在政治、宗教、法律、军 事、社交、服饰、饮食等凡是与统治阶级有关的一切领域
都有反映。法语词成了这些领域所用词语的主体 。从此,英语改变了运用复合法创造新词
的主要手段,并用来指称新事物,表达新概念这一日尔曼语族语 言的特征,而向外来语敞
开了大门。用直接引进借词的方法来满足对新词的需要。这一变化对英语词汇的 发展影响
深远,为日后大量借词—主要是希腊语词、拉丁语词—进入英语铺平了道路。
随着 众多的法语借词被吸收进英语,一些法语和拉丁语的词缀也被英语化了,成为英语构
词的重要素材。如前 缀dis-, en-, inter-, mal-, non-, pre-, re-, semi-, sub-后缀如-able, -
acy, -age, -al, -ancyency, -ate, -ory, -ance, -ant-ent, -ician, -ise。与此同时,有些英 语
本族语的词缀反而被废弃不用了。在复合词的构成格式方面,也吸收了法语的一些特色,
例如 :名词+形容词,副词+过去分词(例by-gone)。这些现象,语言学史上称为英语的罗
曼语化。 这就是为什么从谱系关系上看,英语与德语同族,但现代英语的词汇和法语更相
近的原因。
大量的法语词的涌入,也使英语词汇起了词义变化。有一些英语固有的词被淘汰掉了,有
一些虽然还存在 ,但词义范围有所改变,或者带上特有的文体色彩和感情色彩。例如:
wed在古英语中作“结婚”解, 但在中古英语时期传入了法语词”merry”,英语中“结
婚”这一意义渐渐由marry来表示,w ed只用在引申意义中了;它的动名词wedding还是
一个常用的词,但只限于指“婚礼”。带有不 同文体意义的英语本族语词与法语并存,组
成了英语中特有的同义词群格式。
3、现代英语时期(1500-- )
到中古英语末期,英语已经确立了作为英国国语的地 位。乔叟的作品证明,英语已成为一
种成熟的文学语言。英语语法的简单化过程已大体完成,拼写走向固 定,基本词汇也已形
成。总之,现代英语的基础也已经奠定。如果说阅读中古英语以前的英语仿佛是在读 另外
一种语言,那么十六世纪以后的英语与当代的英语的差别也就不那么明显了。现代英语一
般 以1700年为界,分为早期现代英语与后期现代英语。1700年英语规范化和标准化过程
已经完成, 这以后英语的语音和语法都无大的变化,只有词汇不断地扩大和丰富。
早期现代英语时期,对英语词 汇的影响最大的是文艺复兴运动。文专职复兴运动是十四世
纪在意大利开始的,在十六世纪以后的两个世 纪内对英国的影响很大。在这一时期,强调
研究古代希腊、罗马文化,以对抗中世纪的封建文化。于是许 多外来词,主要是拉丁语和
希腊语的词语传入英语,成为英语的书面语和术语词的基本部分。同时也为英 语提供了大
量的同义词。希腊和拉丁语词进入英语后有的保留了原来的形式,如 climax, appendix,
exterior, axis;有的失去了词尾,如(扩号内为拉丁语), consult (consultare), exclusion
(exclusioneum) exotic (exoticus);还有的改变了词尾,使之更适合英语的形式,如形容词


词尾us 变成了ous或变成al,名词词尾tas变为ty。
经过1640年英国资产阶级革命和其后的工 业革命,英帝国开始向外扩张,与世界各地的
交往日趋频繁,全球各地的语言都有语汇进入了英语,例如 :harem[波斯语,商队],
bazaar[波斯语,市场],shawl[波斯语,披肩],ki osk[土耳其语,凉亭],coffee[土耳其语],
nabob[印地语,大富翁],soy[日语,酱油],orang- outang[马来语,猩猩],paddy[马来语,
稻]。
与此同时,由于与法国一直 保持着密切关系,法语词仍然源源不断地传入英语。这一时期
传入英语的法语词很多保留了法语在发音和 拼写上的特征,如protégé,被保护人,chaise
两轮马车。
在构词法方面,截短单词和混成词迅速增加。依靠元音交替构成新词的方法被逐渐废弃了。
在这一时期,英语被带到了英国以外的一些地区、国家。成为那里的通用语言。这里应特
别提到的美国英 语。随着时间的推移,大西洋两边的盎格鲁- 萨克森人使用的英语尽管基本
相同,但在语言,拼写和语法方面都开始出现一些区别。
二十 世纪以来,英美的科学文化有了很大的发展,各式各样的宣传媒介越来越普及,又发
生了两次世界大战, 从们之间的交往越来越多,英语的词汇也随着越来越丰富。词汇量有
了成倍的增加。英语作为一种国际的 语言,是英国,美国,澳大利亚,新西兰,加拿大等
国的国语。使用人口过三亿四千万以上,是在国际上 使用最广泛的语言,在国际交往中起
着重要的作用。
经过1500年的变迁,英语从几个日 耳曼部族的语言发展为今天具有重大国际影响的语言,
这固然有政治,经济,社会的原因,但英语本身也 有其它主要语言所没有的长处。词汇的
国际性便是他的优点之一。从本单元简略地回顾中可以看出英语善 于吸收外来词。一方面
英语属于日尔曼语族,有日尔曼语的共同词语,另一方面又长期与法语及其它罗曼 语族语
言的联系密切,同时吸收了大量古典词语。可以说,英语把代表欧洲主要文化的词语兼收
并蓄于一身,这在欧洲各语言中间是独特的。从语法角度看,英语词尾变化简单,没有复
杂的性数格变化 。英语正在不断向分析性语言的方向发展,向简化的方向发展,英语的词
序起的作用越来越大,这也使英 语比较容易学习,特别是容易入门了。
英语也有他的弱点。最容易察觉的便是拼读不统一,造成的拼 写混乱。此外,同义词、惯
用语特别多,这固然使其表现力强,但同时也给英语学习者带来了不少的因难 。

English is a member of the Indo- European family of languages. This broad family
includes most of the European languages spoken today. The Indo-European family
includes several major branches: Latin and the modern Romance languages (French etc.);
the Germanic languages (English, German, Swedish etc.); the Indo-Iranian languages
(Hindi, Urdu, Sanskrit etc.); the Slavic languages (Russian, Polish, Czech etc.); the Baltic
languages of Latvian and Lithuanian; the Celtic languages (Welsh, Irish Gaelic etc.);
Greek.
The influence of the original Indo-European language can be seen today, even though no
written record of it exists. The word for father, for example, is vater in German, pater in
Latin, and pitr in Sanskrit. These words are all cognates, similar words in different
languages that share the same root.
By the second century BC, this Common Germanic language had split into three distinct


sub-groups:

East Germanic was spoken by peoples who migrated back to southeastern Europe. No
East Germanic language is spoken today, and the only written East Germanic language
that survives is Gothic.

North Germanic evolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of Swedish, Danish,
Norwegian, and Icelandic (but not Finnish, which is related to Hungarian and Estonian
and is not an Indo-European language).
West Germanic is the ancestor of modern German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and English.

Old English (500-1100 AD)
West Germanic invaders from Jutland and southern Denmark: the Angles (whose name
is the source of the words England and English), Saxons, and Jutes, began to settle in
the British Isles in the fifth and sixth centuries AD. They spoke a mutually intelligible
language, similar to modern Frisian - the language of the northeastern region of the
Netherlands - that is called Old English. Four major dialects of Old English emerged,
Northumbrian in the north of England, Mercian in the Midlands, West Saxon in the south
and west, and Kentish in the Southeast.

These invaders pushed the original, Celtic- speaking inhabitants out of what is now
England into Scotland, Wales, Cornwall, and Ireland, leaving behind a few Celtic words.
These Celtic languages survive today in the Gaelic languages of Scotland and Ireland and
in Welsh. Cornish, unfortunately, is, in linguistic terms, now a dead language. (The last
native Cornish speaker died in 1777) Also influencing English at this time were the
Vikings. Norse invasions and settlement, beginning around 850, brought many North
Germanic words into the language, particularly in the north of England. Some examples
are dream, which had meant 'joy' until the Vikings imparted its current meaning on it
from the Scandinavian cognate draumr, and skirt, which continues to live alongside its
native English cognate shirt.

The majority of words in modern English come from foreign, not Old English roots. In
fact, only about one sixth of the known Old English words have descendants surviving
today. But this is deceptive; Old English is much more important than these statistics
would indicate. About half of the most commonly used words in modern English have Old
English roots. Words like be, water, and strong, for example, derive from Old English
roots.

Old English, whose best known surviving example is the poem Beowulf, lasted until
about 1100. Shortly after the most important event in the development and history of
the English language, the Norman Conquest.

The Norman Conquest and Middle English (1100-1500)
William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the
Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as
Anglo- Norman. The Normans were also of Germanic stock (

influences in addition to the basic Latin roots.

Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English
language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of
Britain to Christianity in the seventh century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar,
and mass came into the language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of
Romance (Anglo-Norman) words.


The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow.
Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the
Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal
terms, such as indict, jury , and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans
ran the courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic
roots and words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots,
can be seen in many instances.

Sometimes French words replaced Old English words; crime replaced firen and uncle
replaced eam. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a new
word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. Other times, two
different words with roughly the same meaning survive into modern English. Thus we
have the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish and desire.
In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France. This began a
process where the Norman nobles of England became increasingly estranged from their
French cousins. England became the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their
estates in France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their
native tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of
the English population. And as a result of this the labouring and merchant classes grew
in economic and social importance, and along with them English increased in importance
compared to Anglo-Norman.

This mixture of the two languages came to be known as Middle English. The most
famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales. Unlike Old English,
Middle English can be read, albeit with difficulty, by modern English- speaking people.

By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over.
In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which made English the language of
the courts and it began to be used in Parliament.

The Middle English period came to a close around 1500 AD with the rise of Modern
English.

Early Modern English (1500-1800)
The next wave of innovation in English came with the Renaissance. The revival of
classical scholarship brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the Language.
These borrowings were deliberate and many bemoaned the adoption of these
terms, but many survive to this day. Shakespeare's character Holofernes in Loves Labor
Lost is a satire of an overenthusiastic schoolmaster who is too fond of Latinisms.

Many students having difficulty understanding Shakespeare would be surprised to learn
that he wrote in modern English. But, as can be seen in the earlier example of the Lord's
Prayer, Elizabethan English has much more in common with our language today than it
does with the language of Chaucer. Many familiar words and phrases were coined or first
recorded by Shakespeare, some 2,000 words and countless idioms are his. Newcomers
to Shakespeare are often shocked at the number of cliches contained in his plays, until
they realize that he coined them and they became cliches afterwards.

to the language include

Two other major factors influenced the language and served to separate Middle and
Modern English. The first was the Great Vowel Shift. This was a change in pronunciation
that began around 1400. While modern English speakers can read Chaucer with some
difficulty, Chaucer's pronunciation would have been completely unintelligible to the
modern ear. Shakespeare, on the other hand, would be accented, but understandable.


Vowel sounds began to be made further to the front of the mouth and the letter
the end of words became silent. Chaucer's Lyf (pronounced
life. In Middle English name was pronounced
down was pronounced
changes occurring within a century. The shift is still not over, however, vowel sounds are
still shortening although the change has become considerably more gradual.

The last major factor in the development of Modern English was the advent of the
printing press. William Caxton brought the printing press to England in 1476. Books
became cheaper and as a result, literacy became more common. Publishing for the
masses became a profitable enterprise, and works in English, as opposed to Latin,
became more common. Finally, the printing press brought standardization to English.
The dialect of London, where most publishing houses were located, became the standard.
Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the first English dictionary was published in
1604.

Late-Modern English (1800-Present)
The principal distinction between early- and late- modern English is vocabulary.
Pronunciation, grammar, and spelling are largely the same, but Late-Modern English has
many more words. These words are the result of two historical factors. The first is the
Industrial Revolution and the rise of the technological society. This necessitated new
words for things and ideas that had not previously existed. The second was the British
Empire. At its height, Britain ruled one quarter of the earth's surface, and English
adopted many foreign words and made them its own.

The industrial and scientific revolutions created a need for neologisms to describe the
new creations and discoveries. For this, English relied heavily on Latin and Greek. Words
like oxygen, protein, nuclear, and vaccine did not exist in the classical languages, but
they were created from Latin and Greek roots. Such neologisms were not exclusively
created from classical roots though, English roots were used for such terms as
horsepower, airplane, and typewriter.

This burst of neologisms continues today, perhaps most visible in the field of electronics
and computers. Byte, cyber-, bios, hard-drive, and microchip are good examples.

Also, the rise of the British Empire and the growth of global trade served not only to
introduce English to the world, but to introduce words into English. Hindi, and the other
languages of the Indian subcontinent, provided many words, such as pundit, shampoo,
pajamas, and juggernaut. Virtually every language on Earth has contributed to the
development of English, from Finnish (sauna) and Japanese (tycoon) to the vast
contributions of French and Latin.

The British Empire was a maritime empire, and the influence of nautical terms on the
English language has been great. Phrases like three sheets to the wind have their origins
onboard ships.

Finally, the military influence on the language during the latter half of twentieth century
was significant. Before the Great War, military service for English-speaking persons was
rare; both Britain and the United States maintained small, volunteer militaries. Military
slang existed, but with the exception of nautical terms, rarely influenced standard English.
During the mid-20th century, however, a large number of British and American men
served in the military. And consequently military slang entered the language like never
before. Blockbuster, nose dive, camouflage, radar, roadblock, spearhead, and landing
strip are all military terms that made their way into standard English.



American English and other varieties
Also significant beginning around 1600 AD was the English colonization of North America
and the subsequent creation of American English. Some pronunciations and usages

American English are closer to the English of Shakespeare than modern Standard English
('English English' or as it is often incorrectly termed 'British English') is. Some

the colonies while lost at home (e.g., fall as a synonym for autumn, trash for rubbish,
and loan as a verb instead of lend).

The American dialect also served as the route of introduction for many native American
words into the English language. Most often, these were place names like Mississippi,
Roanoke, and Iowa. Indian-sounding names like Idaho were sometimes created that had
no native-American roots. But, names for other things besides places were also common.
Raccoon, tomato, canoe, barbecue, savanna, and hickory have native American roots,
although in many cases the original Indian words were mangled almost beyond
recognition.

Spanish has also been great influence on American English. Mustang, canyon, ranch,
stampede, and vigilante are all examples of Spanish words that made their way into
English through the settlement of the American West.

A lesser number of words have entered American English from French and West African
languages.

Likewise dialects of English have developed in many of the former colonies of the British
Empire. There are distinct forms of the English language spoken in Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, India and many other parts of the world.



Global English


English has now inarguably achieved global status. Whenever we turn on the news to
find out what's happening in East Asia, or the Balkans, or Africa, or South America, or
practically anywhere, local people are being interviewed and telling us about it in English.
To illustrate the point when Pope John Paul II arrived in the Middle East recently to
retrace Christ's footsteps and addressed Christians, Muslims and Jews, the pontiff spoke
not Latin, not Arabic, not Italian, not Hebrew, not his native Polish. He spoke in English.

Indeed, if one looks at some of the facts about the amazing reach of the English
language many would be surprised. English is used in over 90 countries as an official or
semi-official language. English is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN.
It is the de facto working language of 98 percent of international research physicists and
research chemists. It is the official language of the European Central Bank, even though
the bank is in Frankfurt and neither Britain nor any other predominantly English-speaking
country is a member of the European Monetary Union. It is the language in which Indian
parents and black parents in South Africa overwhelmingly wish their children to be
educated. It is believed that over one billion people worldwide are currently learning
English.

One of the more remarkable aspects of the spread of English around the world has been
the extent to which Europeans are adopting it as their internal lingua franca. English is


spreading from northern Europe to the south and is now firmly entrenched as a second
language in countries such as Sweden, Norway, Netherlands and Denmark. Although not
an official language in any of these countries if one visits any of them it would seem that
almost everyone there can communicate with ease in English. Indeed, if one switches on
a television in Holland one would find as many channels in English (albeit subtitled), as
there are in Dutch.

As part of the European Year of Languages, a special survey of European attitudes
towards and their use of languages has just published. The report confirms that at the
beginning of 2001 English is the most widely known foreign or second language, with 43%
of Europeans claiming they speak it in addition to their mother tongue. Sweden now
heads the league table of English speakers, with over 89% of the population saying they
can speak the language well or very well. However, in contrast, only 36% of Spanish and
Portuguese nationals speak English. What's more, English is the language rated as most
useful to know, with over 77% of Europeans who do not speak English as their first
language, rating it as useful. French rated 38%, German 23% and Spanish 6%

English has without a doubt become the global language.

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