kanen语言学教程相关名词翻译和解释

2021年1月19日发(作者：耗子花)
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Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.
Teaching difficulties: design features of language some important distinctions in linguistics
Teaching procedures

1. language
1.1 Why study language?
为什么学习语言


A tool for communication
交流的工具

An integral part of our life and humanity
人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分
.
If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of
what constitutes our essential humanity.
如果 不能完全理解语言的本质和结构
,
我们就会对人类
的本质一无所知
.

1.2 What is language?
什么是语言


1.2.1 different senses of language
语言的不同意义


1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)
a person’s consistent way of speaking or writing

a particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial language
an abstract system

2. A web
ster’s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:


a. human speech
人类的言语

b. the ability to communicate by this means
通过言语来交流的能力

c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used
for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings;
用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一
套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统

d. the written representation of such a system
系统的文字表达


3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communic ation.
最简洁的定义
:
语言是言
语交流的一种方式
.
Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is
social and conventional in that language is a social semiostic and communication can only take
place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such
associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes
us
from
animals.
因为说和 写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为
,
所以语言是实用性的
;
因为语言
是社会符号
,
语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示
,动机
,
社会
文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行
,
因 此语言又是社会的
,
约定俗成的
.
语言使
人嗲鹩诙
?

1.2.2 definitions
一
.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
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What is communication?
A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver
or listener).
A system ----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than
randomly. They cannot be arranged at will. e.g. He the table cleaned. (×
) bkli (×
)


Why do we say language is arbitrary?
Arbitrary----there
is
no
intrinsic
(logic)
connection
between
a
linguistic
form
and
its
meaning,
between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This explains and
is explained by the fact that different language have different words for the same object, it is good
illustration
of
the
arbitrary
nature
of
language .
it
is
only
our
tacit
agreement
of
utterance
and
concept at work and not any innate relationship bound up in the utterance. A typical example to
illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous quotation from shakepeare
’
s play:
”

Romeo and
Juliet: A rose by any other name would smell as sweet.
一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字
,
闻起来都是
一样香的
.
Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but
convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish to refer
to.
V
ocal-------- the primary medium for all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their
writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small
children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read also indicates that
language is primarily vocal, rather than written.
Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.
People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.
Human ----language is human-specific.
Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.

“
Language Acquisition Device”(LAD)

二
.What characteristics of langauge do you think should be included in a good ,comprenhensive
definition of language?
Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary langague
is used for human communication.

1.3 Design features of language
语言的结构特征


Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from
any
animal
system
of
communication.
They
are
arbitrariness,
duality,
creativity/
productivity,
displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.
Design
features-----
are
features
that
define
our
human
languages,such
as
arbitrarin ess,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural
t ransmission,etc.(
指决定了人类语言性质的
特征
.
例如任 意性
,
二重性
,
创造性
,
移位性
,
文化转 移性等
.)
The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.

What is arbitrariness?
任意性

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a.
arbitrariness----
arbitrariness(
任意性
):
one
design
feature
of
human
language,which
refers
to
the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(
人类语言
的本质特征之一
,
指语言符号的形 式与意义之间没有自然的联系
.)
It was discussed by Saussure link between them is a matter of convention.

E
.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)











Mansion (French)











房子
(Chinese)
(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning
语言的音和义之间的任意性

a. By
“
arbitrary
”
, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
语言
的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。

A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language
therefore is largely arbitrary.
b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo
words, like “bang ” ”crash” ”roar ” ” rumble ” ”cakle”, which are motivated in a certain sense.”

onomatopoeia
拟声词
---words that sound like the sounds they describe
那些发音像它们的描写的
声音的词

c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. “type ”
and ”write ”are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type
-
writer” is less so, or more transparent
or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.

arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.
任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。

Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.
夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。


(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level
句法上的任意性

According to systematic- functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the
syntactic level.
对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，
语言在句法上是非任意的。

Syntax-----it
refers
to
the
ways
that
sentences
are
constructed
according
to
the
grammar
of
arrangement.
句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。


(3) Aribrtary and convention
任意性和约定性

The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
语言学上的符号和它
的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。

The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.
任意性的相反面，即约定性。

conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have a
conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same
intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.
Arbitrainess
of
langauge
makes
it
potentially
creative,
and
conventionality
of
language
makes
learning a language laborious.
任意性赋予语言潜在的创造 力，
而语言的约定性又使学习语言变
得费力。

There
are
two
different
schools
of
belief
concerning
arbitrariness.
Most
people,
especially
structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that
language is iconic, that is, there is a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning,
such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)
For
the
majority
of
animal
signals,
there
does
appear
to
be
a
clear
connection
between
the
conveyed
message
and
the
signal
used
to
convey
it,
And
for
them,
the
sets
of
signals
used
in
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communication is finite.

b.
duality(
二重性
):---
one
design
feature
of
human
language,which
refers
to
the
property
of
having two levels of structures , such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the
secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organizat ion.(
人类语言的本
质特征之一
,
指拥有两层结构的这种特性
,
底层结构是上层结构的组成成分
,
每层都有自身的
组合规则
.)
duality----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds
and that of meaning.

the higher level ----words which are meaningful
the lower or the basic level---- sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped
into words.
Dog: woof (but not “w
-oo-
f ” )

This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since
with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a very large number of sound
combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.
The principle of economy
Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated,
one finds
two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of
combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) . At the second, lower level, it
is seen as a sequence of segments wich lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to
form units of meaning.
According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one
of sound and the other of meaning. This is improtant for the workings of language.

A
small
number
of
senmantic
words
/units,
and
these
units
of
meaning
can
be
arranged
and
rearranged
into
an
infinite
number
of
sentences.
这些意义单位组成无数个句子。
(note
that
we
have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).

Duality
makes
it
possible
for
a
person
to
talk
about
anything
within
his
knowledge.
No
anmial
communication system enjoys this duality.
To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.
说到语言的二重性，我们必须
注意语言的等级性。



c.
Creativity----language
is
resourceful.
It
makes
possible
the
construction
and
interpretation
of
new signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-human signals ,on
the other hand, appears to have little flexibility.


creativity(
创造性
):
one
design
feature
of
human
language
,by
creativity
we
mean
language
is
resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. (
指语言的能产性
,
因为语言有二重性和
递归性
.)

productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large
number of sentences in one
’
s native language , including those that has never heard before , but
that are appropriate to the speaking situation.
人们能够利用语言 中原有的规则来理解从未碰到
过的语言符号的特征。

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e.g. an experiment of bee communication:
The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of a nectar source , will fail to do so if
the location is really ‘new’ .


In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the
top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest of the hive
about their find. The message was conveyed via a bee dance and the whole gang buzzed off to get
the free food. They flow around in all directions, but couldn’t locate the food. The problem may be
that
bee
communication
regarding
location
has
a
fixed
set
of
signals,
all
of
which
related
to
horizonta distance. The bee cannot create a ‘new ’ message indicating vertical distance.

No one has never said or heard “A red
-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an
African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he
can understand it in right register.
Different from artistic creativity, productivity never goes outside the language, thus productivity is
also called “rule
-
bound creativity” (by N. Chomsky)

Productivity is unique to human language.
创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。


d.
displacement(
移位性
):
one
design
feature
of
human
language,which
means
human
language
enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and
space,at
the
moment
of
communication.(
指 人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时
(
时间和处
所
)
并不存在的物 体
,
时间和观点
.)

Bee communication:
When
a
worker
bee
finds
a
source
of
nectar
and
returns
to
the
hive,
it
can
perform
a
complex
dance routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the type
of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for further away
and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered feast can be found. Bee
communication
has
displacement
in
an
extremely
limited
form.
However,
it
must
be
the
most
recent food source.

Displacement , as one of the design features of the human languag, refers to the fact that one can
talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can
refer to real or unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.
人类语 言可以被用来
指不在当时当地发生的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限制。


Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak,
that means language has the feature of displacement.
Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for esxample, is crying to a woman, about
something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occuring, or soemthing
that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can dicide it is barking for something or at
someone that exists now and there. It counldn’t be bow
-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost.
The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a samll share of “displacement”, but it’s an unspeakable tiny
share

e. Cultural transmission ----genetic transmission
You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental process
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whereby
language
is
passed
on
from
one
generation
to
the
next
is
described
as
cultural
transmission.
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that
the
details
of
the
linguistic
system
must
be
learned
anew
by
each
speaker.
It
is
true
that
the
capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “lan
guage acquisition device
”
, or
LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular languag a person learns to speak is a cultural one other
than a genetic one lkie the dog
’
s barking system.
（人类 学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任何
详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，
这说明语 言具有文化传递性，
它不是靠人
类的本能而获得的。
）

If a human beging is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire langauge. The Wolf Child reared by
the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned
thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.

Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.
动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。


f. interchangeability
互换性

interchangeablity means that any human beging can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.
Though some people suggest that there is differatiation in the actual language use, in other words,
men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence
that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the
speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the
speaker
and
the
first
speaker
is
to
listen.
It
is
turn-taking
that
makes
social
communication
possible
and
acceptable.
Some
male
birds,
however,
utter
some
calls
which
females
do
not
(or
cannot). When a dog barkds, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell
which dog /dogs is /are “speaking” and which listening.


What featrues of human langauge have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially
different from any animal communication system?

Arbitrainess----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.
Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.
Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.
Displacement----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation.
Cultural transmission-----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals
are born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communicaiton.

Why do linguists say langauge is human specific?
First of all, huan language has six “design features” which animal communication sysmtens do not
have, at least not in the true sense of them.
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human
language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like
a
human
child
by
Beatnice
and
Alan
Gardner.
She
was
taught
“American
sign
language”,
and
learned a little that made the teacehrs happy but did not make the linguists circle happy, for few
believed in teaching champanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he
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is taken back and taught to do so.




1.4 Origin of language
语言的起源

1.5 functions of language
语言的功能


Jakobson difined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context,
message, code, contact.
雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：
说话者，
受话者，
语境，
信息，
语码，接触。

Jakobson
established
a
well-known
framework
of
language
functions
based
on
the
six
key
elements of communication, namely:

Referential funtion-----to convey message and imformation
所指功能：传达信息

Poetic funtion -----to indulge in language for its own sake
诗学功能：完全就语言而语言

Emotive funtion ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions
感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感
情

Conative funtion ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties
意动功
能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人

Phatic funtion ----to establish communion with others
交感功能：与他人建议交流

Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings
元语言功能：
弄清意图、
词
语和意义

They
correspond
to
such
communication
elements
as
context
,message,
addresser,
addressee,
contact and code.
它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接
触和语码等。


Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:
韩礼德提出语言
元功能的理论，即语言有：

Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;
概念功能：
建构了经验模型和逻辑关系

Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships
人际功能：反映了社会关系

textual functions----creates relevance to context.
语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系


Halliday
proposed
seven
categories
of
language
functions
by
observing
child
language
development, that is , instrumental, regulatory, represnetational, interactional, personal, heuristic
and imagina tive.
他通过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制
功能，表 达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。


Function(
功能
):
the
use
of
language
to
communicate,to
think
,ge
functions
inclucle
imformative
function,interpersonal
function,performative
function,
emotive
function,phatic
communion,recreational
function
and
metalingual
function.(
用语言交流
,
思考 等
.
语言功能包括
信息功能
,
人际功能
,
施为功能
,
感情功能
,
交感性功能
,
娱乐性功能和元语言功能
.)
language
has
at
least
seven
funtions:
patic,
directive,
informative,
interrogative,
expressive,
evocative and performative.
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Accoriding to Wang Gang (1988), langauge has three main functions:
a tool of communications,

a tool whereby people learn about the world;
a tool by which people creat art.

1.5.1 Informative function
信息功能

What is the informative function?
Langauge serves an “informatvie function” when used to tell something , characterized by the use
of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true or false. According to P.
Grice’s
“cooperative
principle”,
one
ought
not
to
violate
the
“maxim
of
Quality”,
when
he
is
informing at all.
Informative
function
is
also
called
ideational
function
in
the
framework
of
functional
grammar.
在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。

Halliday notes that
“
langauge serves for the expression of
‘
content
’
”
: that is, of the speaker
’
s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.
韩礼德指出
“语言为表 达‘内容’服务：这个‘内容’就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识
的内部世界。
“

It
requires
some
intellectual
effort
to
see
them
in
any
other
way
than
that
which
our
language
suggests
to
us. < br>它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们
的那样去做。

1.5.2 Interpersonal function
人际功能

1.5.3 Performative function
施为功能

This
mean
s
people
speak
to
“do
things”
or
perform
actions.
On
certain
occasions
the
utterance
itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence.
The
judge’s
imprisonment
sentence,
the
president’s
war
or
independence
dec
laration
,
etc,
are
perfomatives.
1.5.4 Emotive function
感情功能

1.5.5 Phatic communion
交感性谈话

phatic
communion(
交感性谈话
):
one
function
of
human
language,which
refers
to
the
social
interaction of language.(
人类语言的功能之一
,
指语言的社会交互性
.)
broadly speaking, phatic funcion refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal
relations,
such
as
slangs,
jokes,
jargons,
ritualistic
exchanges,
switches
to
social
and
regional
dialects.
概 况地说，交感性功能是指那些有助于说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，
行业话，礼节性的交际 ，社会地域方言的转化等等。

The
phatic
function
refers
to
language
being
used
for
setting
up
a
certain
atmosphere
or
maintaining social contacts than for exchanging imformation or ideas. Greetings , farewells and
comments on the weather in English and cloting in Chinese all lserve this function. Much of the
phatic
langauge(eg,
“how
are
you?”
“fine,
thanks.”)
is
insincere
if
taken
literally,
but
it
is
important. If you don’t say “hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his “hi ” , you ruin
your friendship.

1.5.6 Recreational function
娱乐性功能

What is the evocative function?
什么是娱乐性功能？

The “evocative function” is the use of language to creat certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is ,