peel是什么意思语言学讲解和名词解释

2021年1月19日发(作者：掂斤播两)
第一章

Chapter 1

Invitations to Linguistics
Teaching aims:
let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.
Teaching difficulties:
design features of language some important distinctions in linguistics
Teaching procedures
1.
language

Why study language?
为什么学习语言

A tool for communication
交流的工具

An integral part of our life and humanity
人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分
.
If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what
constitutes our essential humanity.
如果 不能完全理解语言的本质和结构
,
我们就会对人类的本质一无
所知
.

What is language?
什么是语言


different senses of language
语言的不同意义

1. what a person says( concrete act of speech)
a person‘s consistent way of speaking or writing

a particular level of speaking or writing


e.g. colloquial language
an abstract system
2. A webster‘s New Dictionrary offers a frequently used sense of the word ―language‖:

a. human speech
人类的言语

b. the ability to communicate by this means
通过言语来交流的能力

c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed,
used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings;
用来表达或交流思想和
感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统

d. the written representation of such a system
系统的文字表达

3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.
最简 洁的定义
:
语言是
言语交流的一种方式
.
Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is
social
and
conventional
in
that
language
is
a
social
semiostic
and
communication

can
only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction
including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles.
Language
distinguishes
us
from
animals.
因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为
,
所以
语言是 实用性的
;
因为语言是社会符号
,
语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人 类的那些
非言语的暗示
,
动机
,
社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之 后才能有效进行
,
因此语言又是社会
的
,
约定俗成的
.语言使人类区别于动物
.

definitions
一
.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.
What is communication?
A process in which information is transmitted from a source (sender or speaker) to a goal (receiver
or listener).
A system ----since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules systematically, rather than
randomly. They cannot be arranged at will.

e.g. He the table cleaned. (×
)

bkli

(×
)
Why do we say language is arbitrary?
Arbitrary----there
is
no
intrinsic
(logic)
connection
between
a
linguistic
form
and
its
meaning,
between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer. This
explains and is explained by the fact

that different language have different words for
the same object, it is good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language . it is only our
tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound
up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the arbitrary of language is a famous
quotation from shakepeare‘s play:‖ Romeo and Juliet: A rose by any other name would
smell as sweet.
一朵玫瑰不管它叫什么名字
,
闻起来都是一样香的
.
Symbols----words are just the symbols associated with objects, actions, and ideas by nothing but

convention. Namely, people use the sounds or voval forms to symbolize what they wish
to refer to.
Vocal--------
the
primary
medium for
all
languages
is sound, no matter how
well
developed
their
writing systems are. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact
that small children learn and can only learn to speak and listen before they write or read
also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written.










Writing systems came into being much later than the spoken forms.










People with little or no literacy can also be competent language users.
Human ----language is human-specific.









Human beings have different kinds of brains and vocal capacity.



―Language Acquisition Device‖(LAD)

二
.What
characteristics
of
langauge
do
you
think
should
be
included
in
a
good
,comprenhensive
definition of language?
Language is a rule-governed system; langauge is basically vocal; langauge is arbitrary langague is
used

for human communication.
1.3 Design features of language
语言的结构特征

Design features------ refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any
animal
system
of
communication.
They
are
arbitrariness,
duality,
creativity/
productivity,
displacement, clutural transmission and interchangeability.
Design
features-----
are
features
that
define
our
human
languages,such
as
arbitrarin ess,duality,creativity,displacement,cultural
t ransmission,etc.(
指决定了人类语言性质的特
征
.
例如任 意性
,
二重性
,
创造性
,
移位性
,
文化转 移性等
.)
The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.
What is arbitrariness?
任意性

a. arbitrariness
----
arbitrariness(
任意性
)
: one design feature of human language,which refers to the
fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(
人
类语言的本质特征之一
,
指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系
.)

It was discussed by Saussure link between them is a matter of convention.



E.g. ―house‖




uchi (Japanese)


















Mansion (French)




















房子
(Chinese)
(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning
语言的音和义之间的任意性







a.

By ―arbitrary‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
语言
的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。

A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language
therefore is largely arbitrary.
b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound- meaning association, if we think of echo
words, like ―bang ‖ ‖crash‖ ‖roar ‖ ‖ rumble ‖ ‖cakle‖, which are motivated in a certain sense.‖

onomatopoeia
拟声词
---words that sound like the sounds they describe
那些发音像它们的描写的
声音的词

c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. ―type ‖
and ‖write ‖are opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type
-
writer‖ is less so, or more transpa
rent
or motivated than the words that make it . so we can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.

arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.
任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。

Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.
夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。

(2) Arbitrary at the syntactic level
句法上的任意性

According to systematic- functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the
syntactic level.
对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。

Syntax-----it
refers
to
the
ways
that
sentences
are
constructed
according
to
the
grammar
of
arrangement.
句法就是依据语法安排造句之法。

(3) Aribrtary and convention
任意性和约定性

The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
语言学上的符号和它
的意义之间是约定俗成的关系。

The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.
任意性的相反面，即约定性。

conventionality----It means that in any language there are certain sequences of sounds that have
a conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the
same intended meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.
Arbitrainess
of
langauge
makes
it
potentially
creative,
and
conventionality
of
language
makes
learning a language laborious.
任意性赋予语言潜在的创造 力，
而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费
力。

There
are
two
different
schools
of
belief
concerning
arbitrariness.
Most
people,
especially
structural linguists believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that
language
is
iconic,
that
is,
there
is
a
direct
relation
or
correspondence
between
sound
and
meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)
For
the
majority
of
animal
signals,
there
does
appear
to
be

a
clear
connection
between
the
conveyed message and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in
communication is finite.
b. duality(
二重性
)
:--- one design feature of human language,which refers to the property of having two
levels of structures , such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the
and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(
人类语言的本质特征之一
,
指拥有两层结构的这种特性
,
底层结构是上层结构的组 成成分
,
每层都有自身
的组合规则
.)

duality
----language is simultaneously organized at two levels or layers, namely, the level of sounds
and that of meaning.

the higher level ----words which are meaningful
the lower or the basic level---- sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped
into words.
Dog: woof

(but not “w
-oo-
f ” )

a
limited
set
of
distinct
sounds
we
are
capable
of
producing
a
very

large
number
of
sound
combinations (e.g. words) which are distinct in meaning.
Linguists refer ―duality‖ (of structure) to the fact that in all language so far investigated, one find
s
two
levels
of
structure
or
patterning.
At
the
first,
higher
level,
language
is
analyzed
in
terms
of
combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.) . At the second, lower level, it is
seen as a sequence of segments wich lack any meaning in themselves,

but which combine to form
units of meaning.
According to HUZHUANGLIN, language is a system of two sets of structures or two levels, one of
sound and the other of meaning. This is improtant for the workings of language.

A
samll
number
of
senmantic
words
/units,
and
these
units
of
meaning
can
be
arranged
and
rearranged
into
an
infinite
number
of
sentences.
这些意义单位组成无数个句子。
(note
that
we
have
dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!).

Duality
makes
it
possible
for
a
person
to
talk
about
anything
within
his
knowledge.
No
anmial
communication system enjoys this duality.








This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with








The principle of economy
To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.
说到语言的二重性，我们必须注
意语言的等级性。


c. Creativity
----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new
signals by its users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-human signals ,on the other
hand, appears to have little flexibility.

creativity(
创造性
):
one
design
feature
of
human
language
,by
creativity
we
mean
language
is
resourceful
because
of
its
duality
and
its
recursiveness.

(
指语言的能产性
,
因为语言有二重性和递归
性
.)
productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number
of
sentences
in
one‘s
native
language
,
including
those
t
hat
has
never
heard
before
,
but
that
are
appropriate
to
the
speaking
situation.
人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未 碰到过的语言符号的
特征。

e.g.
an experiment of bee communication:
The worker bee, normally able to communicate the location of

a nectar source , will fail to do so if
t
he location is really ?new‘

.

In one experiment, a hive of bees was placed at the foot of a radio tower and a food source at the
top. Ten bees were taken to the top, shown the food source, and sent off to tell the rest
of
the
hive
about
their
find.
The
message
was
conveyed
via
a
bee
dance
and
the
whole
gang
buzzed
off
to
get
the
free
food.
They
flow
around
in
all
directions,
but
couldn‘t
locate
the
food.
The
problem
may
be
that
bee
communication
regarding
location has a fixed set of signals, all of which related to horizonta distance. The bee
cannot create a ?new ‘ message indicating vertical distance.

No
one
has
never said
or heard
―A
red
-eyed
elephant
is dancing
on
the
small hotel bed
with an
African gibbon‖, but he can say it when necessary, and he can
understand it in right
register.
Different from
artistic creativity,
productivity
never goes
outside
the
language,
thus
productivity
is
also called ―rule
-
bound creativity‖ (by N. Chomsky)

Productivity is unique to human language.
创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。

d.
displacement(
移位性
)
:
one
design
feature
of
human
language,which
means
human
language
enable their users to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in
time and space,at the moment of communica tion.(
指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说
话时
(
时间和处所
)
并不存在的物体
,
时间和观点
.)





Bee communication
:

When a worker bee finds a source of nectar and returns to the hive, it can perform a complex dance
routine to communicate to the other bees the location of this nectar. Depending on the
type of dance (round dance for nearby and tail-wagging dance, with variable tempo, for
further away and how far), The other bees can work put where this newly discovered
feast can be found. Bee communication has displacement in an extremely limited form.
However, it must be the most recent food source.
Displacement , as one of the design features of the human languag, refers to the fact that one can talk
about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words,
one can refer to real or unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.
人
类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生的 事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受
时空限制。

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that
means language has the feature of displacement.
Language itself can be talked about too. When a man , for esxample, is crying to a
woman, about
something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occuring, or
soemthing

that
is
to
occur.
When
a
dog
is
barking,
however,
you
can
dicide
it
is
bark
ing
for
something
or
at
someone
that
exists
now
and
there.
It
counldn‘t
be
bow-
wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee‘s system, nonetheless, has a
samll share of ―displacement‖, but it‘s an unspeakable tiny share

e. Cultural transmission----genetic transmission




You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.
The
process
whereby
language
is
passed
on
from
one
generation
to
the
next
is
described
as
cultural transmission.
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that
the
details
of
the
linguistic
system
must
be
learned
anew
by
each
speaker.
It
is
true
that
the
capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it ―language acquisition device‖, or
LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular languag a person learns to speak is a cultural one
other than a genetic one lkie the dog‘s barking system.
（人类学习语言的能力有遗传基础，但任
何详 细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，
这说明语言具有文化传递性，它不是靠人类的
本 能而获得的。
）

If a human beging is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire langauge. The Wolf Child reared by
the
pack
of
wolves
turned
out
to
speak
the
wolf‘s
roaring
―tongue‖
when
he
was
saved.
He
learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.

Animal call systems are genetically transmitted.
动物是靠其基因来传递其呼叫系统的。

f. interchangeability
互换性

interchangeablity
means
that
any
human
beging
can
be
both
a
producer
and
a
receiver
of
messages. Though some people suggest that there is differatiation in the actual language use, in
other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word
or sentence
that
a
man

can
utter and
a
woman
cannot,
or vice
versa.
On
the
other hand, a
person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the
listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social
communication
possible
and
acceptable.
Some
male
birds,
however,
utter
some
calls
which
females
do
not
(or
cannot).
When
a
dog
barkds,
all
the
neighboring
dogs
bark.
Then
people
around can hardly tell which dog /dogs is /are ―speaking‖ and which listening.


What
featrues
of
human
langauge
have
been
specified
by
C.
Hockett
to
show
that
it
is
essentially
different from any animal communication system?
Arbitrainess ----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.
Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.
Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.
Displacement ----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation.
Cultural transmission -----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are
born with the capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communicaiton.

Why do linguists say langauge is human specific?
First
of all,
huan
language
has
six
―design features‖ which
animal
communication
sysmtens
do
not
have, at least not in the true sense of them.
Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human
language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a
human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught ―American sign language‖, and learned a
little
that
made
the
teacehrs
happy
but
did
not
make
the
linguists
circle
happy,
for
few
believed
in
teaching champanzees.
Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not enen when he is
taken back and taught to do so.
1.4 Origin of language
语言的起源

1.5 functions of language
语言的功能




Jakobson difined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee,
context, message, code, contact.
雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信
息，语码，接触。

Jakobson
established
a
well-known
framework
of
language
functions
based
on
the
six
key
elements of communication, namely:

Referential funtion-----to convey message and imformation
所指功能：传达信息

Poetic funtion -----to indulge in language for its own sake
诗学功能：完全就语言而语言

Emotive funtion ----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions
感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情

Conative funtion ----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties
意动
功能：通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人

Phatic funtion ----to establish communion with others
交感功能：与他人建议交流

Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings
元语言功能：弄清意图、词
语和意义

They correspond to such communication elements as context ,message, addresser, addressee,
contact and code.
它们与一些交流活动的元素相对应，如语境，信息，说话者，受话者，接触和语码
等。


Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:
韩礼德提出语言
元功能的理论，即语言有：


Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;
概念
功能：建构了经验模型和逻辑关系

Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships
人际功能：反映了社会关系


textual functions----creates relevance to context.
语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系


Halliday
proposed
seven
categories
of
language
functions
by
observing
child
language
development,
that
is
,
instrumental,
regulatory,
represnetational,
interactional,
personal,
heuristic and imaginative.
他通 过观察儿童语言的发展提出了语言的七种功能，
他们是工具功能，
控制
功能，表达功能 ，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。


Function(
功能
)
:
the
use
of
language
to
communicate,to
think
,ge
functions
inclucle
imformative
function,interpersonal
function,performative
function,
emotive
function,phatic
communion,recreational function and metalingual function.(
用语言交流
,
思考等
.语言功能包括信息功能
,
人际功能
,
施为功能
,
感情功 能
,
交感性功能
,
娱乐性功能和元语言功能
.)
language has at least seven funtions: patic, directive, informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative
and performative.
Accoriding to Wang Gang (1988), langauge has three main functions:

a tool of communications,

a tool whereby people learn about the world;

a tool by which people creat art.

1.5.1 Informative function
信息功能

What is the informative function?
Langauge serves an “informatvie function” when used to tell something , chara
cterized by the
use
of
declarative
sentences.
Informative
statements
are
often
labelled
as
true
or
false.
According to P
. Grice?s “cooperative principle”, one ought not to violate the “maxim of Quality”,
when he is informing at all.


Informative
function
is
also
called
ideational
function
in
the
framework
of
functional
grammar.
在功能语法的框架中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。

Halliday notes that “langauge serves for the expression of ?content ?”: that is, of the speaker?s
experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.
韩礼德指出
“
语言为表达
?
内容< br>?
服务：这个
?
内容
?
就是说话者的真实的经验世界，包括他 自我意识的内部世界。
“

It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language
suggests to us. < br>它需要人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去
做。

1.5.2 Interpersonal function
人际功能

1.5.3 Performative function
施为功能

This
means
people
speak
to
“do
things”
or
perform
actions.
On
certain
occasions
the
utterance
itself
as
an
action
is
more
important
than
what
words
or
sounds
constitute
the
uttered
sentence.
The
judge?s
imprisonment
sentence,
the
president?s
war
or
independence
declaration , etc, are perfomatives.
1.5.4 Emotive function
感情功能

1.5.5 Phatic communion
交感性谈话

phatic
communion(
交
感
性
谈
话
)
:
one
function
of
human
language,which
refers
to
the
social
interaction of language.(
人类语言的功能之一
,
指语言的社会交互性
.)
broadly
speaking,
phatic
funcion
refers
to
expressions
that
help
define
and
maintain
interpersonal
relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialects.
概况地说，交感性功能是指那些有助于 说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，行业话，礼节性的
交际，社会地域方言的转化等等。

The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining
social contacts than for exchanging imformation or ideas. Greetings , farewells and comments on the
weather in English and cloting in Chinese all lserve this function. Much of the phatic langauge(eg, ―how
are you?
‖ ―fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don‘t say ―hello‖ to a
friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―hi ‖ , you ruin your friendship.

1.5.6 Recreational function
娱乐性功能

What is the evocative function?
什么是娱乐性功能？

The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to creat certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for
example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though)
are supposed to amuse or entertain the listerner; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain
commodities;
propaganda
to
influence
public
opinion.
Obviously,
the
expressive
and
the
evocative

funtions often go together, i.e. you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political
issure but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‘s aslo the case
with the other way round.
1.5.7 Metalingual function
元语言功能

metalanguage(
元语言
)
: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of
particular studies.
用以讲述或描述另一语言等的语言或一套符号。

What is the direct function?
The ―direction function‖ means that language may be use
d to get the hearer to do something. Most
imperative sentences perform this funtion. E.g. ―Tell me the result when you finish.‖ Other syntactic
structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle‘s ―Indirect speech act
theory‖ at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g, ―If I were you, I would have blushed to the
bottom of my ears!‖

What is the interrogative function?
什么是疑问功能？

When
language
is used
to obtain
information,
it
serves
an
―interrogative
function‖. This
includes
all
questions
that
expect
replies,
statements,
imperatives
etc.
according
to
the
―indirect
sppech
act
theory‖, may have this function as well, e.g. ―I‘d like to know you better.‖ This may

bring forth a lot of
personal information. Note that rhetorial questions make an exception, since they demand no answer,
at least not the reader‘s /listerner‘s answer.

What

is the expressive function?
The ―expressive function‖ is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of
the
speaker.
Subconscious
emotional
ejaculations
are
good
examples,
like
―Good
heavens!‖
―My
God!‖ . sentences like ―I‘m sorry about the delay‖ can serve as

good examples too, though in a subtle
way. While language is used for the informative funciton to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of
statements, language used for the expressive function evoluates, appraises or asserts the s
peaker‘s
own attitudes.
is
linguistics

Linguistics is generally a scientific study of language .It is a major branch of social science.
Linguistics
studies
not
just
one
language
of
any
society,
but
the
language
of
all
human
society,
language in general.
语言学是对语言进行科学地研究的学科。它所研 究的并不是某种特定的语言，
而是人类所有的语言的共性。

A
scientific
study
is
one
which
is
based
on
the
systematic
investigation
of
data,
conducted
with
reference to some general theory of language structure.




observation------generalization-----hypothesis ------tested by further observation------theory
A linguist , though , does not have to know and use a large number of language, but to investigate
how each languag is constructed. He is also concerned with how a languag varies from dialect
to dialect, from class to class, how it changes

from century to century, how children acquire
their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In
short,
linguistics
studies
the
general
principles
whereupon
all
human
languages
are
consturcted and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities.

Explain the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.
Lingusitics
investigates
not
any
particular
language,
but
language
in
general.
Linguistic stduy
is
scientific because it is based on the systematic investigation of authentic language data. No
serious
linguistic conclusion
is reached until after the
lingusist
has done
the following
three
things:
observing
the
way
language
is
actually
used,
formulating
some
hyphotheses,
and
testing these hypotheses against linguistic facts to prove their validity.

What makes linguistics a science?
Since
linguistics
is
the
scientific
study
of
language,
it
ought
to
base
itself
upon
the
systematic,
investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its
underlying
system.
To
make
sense
of
the
data,
a
linguist
usually
has
conceived
some
hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable
facts.
In
order
to
make
his
analysis
scientific,
a
linguist
is
usually
guided
by
four
principle:
exhaustiveness, consistency, economy and objectivity.
(1)Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an
adequate
explaination,
in
spite
of
the
complicatedness.
He
is
to
leave
no
linguistic
―stone‖
unturned.
(2)
Consistency
means
there
should
be
no
countradiction
between
different
parts
of
the
total
statement.
(3) Economy means a liguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when is is possible.
(4). Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist shoud be
(or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitues part
of the linguistics research.
1.7


Main branches (scope) of linguistics
语言学的主要分支

Lingusitics should include at least five branches, namely:phonologic, morphologic, syntactic,
senmantic and pragmatic.
语言学至少包括五个分支：语音、形态、句法、语义、和语用。


General
lingusitics
普通语言学
-------the
study
of
language
as
a
whole
is
often
called
general
linguistics.
This
deals
with
the
basic
concepts,
theories,
descriptions,
models
and
methods
appliable in any linguistic study.
把语言作为一个整体来研究的学科被称为普通语言学， 它是语言学
研究中探索人类语言的普遍性质和规律的学科。

1.7.1 phonetics

语音学
-----studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is
how
speech
sounds
are
actually
made,
transmitted
and
received,
the
sounds
of
speech
,
the
description and classification of speech sounds , words and connected speech, etc.
研究语音，包括言
语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成，传递和接受）
，言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语
连接等等。

Phonetics ----The study of sounds used in linguistic community led to establishment of a brach of
linguistics called phonetics. How speech are produced and classified.

1.7.2 phonology
音系学（音位学）
-----studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and
sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language
by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that
can signal a difference in meaning. English has approximately forty-five phonemes.
研究的是语音和音
节的结构，分布和序列，它将音位视为起止点，来处理语言的语音系统。音位是语音 的最小的语言学单
位，它能够区分意义的不同。英语大概有
45
个音位。

Phonology------how sounds form systems and unction to convey meaning in communication.

Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that the human voice is capable of creating whereas
phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.
语音 学是研
究在言语中人类嗓音所能发出的语音，而音系学则是研究这些语音中能形成语言和意义的一个子集 。

Phonetics foucuses on chaos while phonology focuses on order.
语音学是无序的语音，音系学则
注重有序。

1.7.3 morphology

词法学
----is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the
minimal units of meaning----morphemes and word-formation processess.
涉及词语的内部组织，
它
研 究意义的最小单位
---
语素和成词过程。

Morphology ------the
study
of
the
way
in
which
these
symbols
are
arranged
to
from
words
has
constituted the branch of study called morphology. How morphemes are combined to form words.

1.7.4
syntax

句法学
----is
about
principles
of
forming
and
understanding
correct
English
sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify
word
order,
sentence
organization,
and
the
relationship
between
words,
word
classes
and
other
sentence
ele ments.
句法是形成和理解正确的英语句子的规则。句子形成或结构受制于句法规则，这些
规则规定了词语顺序、句子组织、以及词之间，词的格之间，和其他句子成分之间的联系。

Syntax-----the combination of these words to form permissible sentences in language is govened
by rules. The study of

these rules constitutes a major branch of linguistic studies, i.e., syntax. How
morpehemes and words are combined to form sentences.

1.7.5
semantics
语义学
----examines
how
meaning
is
encoded
in
a
language.
It
is
not
only
concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word
and
above
it,
e.g.
meaning
of
morphemes
and
sentences.
Key
concepts:
senmantic
component,
denotation of words, sense relations between words such as antonymy and synonymy, sense relations
between sentences such as entailment and presupposition.
考察的是意义如何 在语言中编码。它关心的
不仅仅是字词作为词汇的意义，还有语言中词之上和词之下的其他成分的意义， 如语素和句子的意义。
关键性概念：语义成分，词的所指，反义和同义等词语间的意义联系，诸如蕴涵和 预设之类的句子间的
意义联系。

Semantics-----the study of meaning was gradually developed and became known as senmantics.
The study of meaning (in abstraction)

1.7.6 pragmatics
语用学
----is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances
in
particular
situations
and
is
especially
concerned
with
the
various
ways
in
which
the
many
social
contexts
of
language
performance
can
influence
interpretation.
In
other
words,
pragmaitics
is
concerned
with
the
way
language
is
used
to
communicate
rather
than
with
the
way
language
is
s tructured.
在语境中研究意义。它是在特定的场景中处理特定的话语，尤其注意于不同社会场 景影响语
言诠释的方法。换句话说，语用学关心的是语言被用来交际的方法，而不是语言组成的方式。< br>
Pragmatics
regards
speech
performance
as
primarily
a
social
act
ruled
by
various
social
conbentions. Some key concepts: reference, force, effect, and cooperative principl es
。
语用学主要将言
语行为看成是被各种社会常规所制约的一种社会行为。主要概念 ：所指、强制、效果和合作原则。

Pragmatics----the study of meaning is conducted , not in isolation, but in the context of use.
研究
语言与语言使用者和语言语境的关系。

1.8
macrolinguistics(
宏
观
语
言< br>学
):

the
interacting
study
between
language
and
language- related disciplines such as psychology,sociology,ethnograph,the science of law and artificial
intelligence es of macrolinguistics include psycholinguistics,sociolinguistics, anthropological
linguistics,computational linguistics etc. (
心理学
,
社会学
,
人种学< br>,
法学和人工智能等等语言学有关联
.
宏观
语言学的分支包括心理语言 学
,
社会语言学
,
人类语言学
,
计算语言学等等
. )

1.8.1
Psycholinguistics
心理语言学
-----investigates
the
interreation
of
language
and
mind,
in
processing
and
producing
utterances
and
in
language
acquisition
for
example.
There
is
the
psycholinguistic
study
of
grammar.
The
psycholinguistics
constrains
on
the
form
of
grammar
are
studied. It also studies language development in the child, such as the theories of language acquisition;
biological foundation of language; and a big topic----the relationship between language and cognition.
心理语言学考察语言和意识的相互 关系，如话语的处理和产生，以及语言习得等。还有语法的心理语言
学研究，即研究心理语言学对语法形 式的限制。心理语言学还研究儿童语言的发展，如语言习得理论、
语言的生物学基础和认知的关系等。< br>
Psycholinguistics----it relates the study of language to psychology . the study of language with
reference to the workings of the mind.
研究语言的产生和理解。语言习得等问题。

1.8.2 Sociolinguistics
社会语言学
-----is the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the
characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly
interact and change within a speech community.
研究语言多样性的特征、它们的功能特征和说话者的特
征以及者三者在言 语社团中持续的交互作用和变化。

Sociolinguistics-----the study of language with reference to society.
研究语言与社会文化的产生。

1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics
人类语言学

1.8.4 Computational linguistics
计算语言学
-----is an interdisciplinary field which centers around
the use of computers to process or produce human language (also known as ―natural language‖, to
distinguish it from computer languages.)
一跨学科的领域，它以计算机处理和产生人类语言（即自 然语
言，与计算机语言相区别）这一应用为中心。

Applied linguistics
应用语言学
-----the application of linguistic principles and theories to language
teaching and learning.
研究语言学习和语言教学等问题。

1.9
Important distinctions in linguistics
1.9.1
Descriptive vs. prescriptive
描写式
‖
和

―
规定式
‖


prescriptive(
规定式
)
:
a
kind
of
linguistic
study
in
which
things
are
prescribed
how
ought
to
be, down rules for language use.(
规定事情应该是怎样的
.)
descriptive(
描写式
)
: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.(
描述事情是怎样的
.)

Descriptive vs. prescriptive

―
描写式
‖
和

―
规定式
‖

They represent two different types of linguistic study.

If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to
be
descriptive
; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior
in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is
said to be
prescriptive.

What makes traditional grammar different from moden linguistics?
Modern linguistics started with the publication of

F
. de Saussure?
s book ―Course in General
Linguistics‖
in
the
early
20
th

century.
So
Saussure
is
often
described
as
―
father
of
modern
linguistics
‖.

The
general
approach
traditionally
formed
to
the
study
of
language
before
that
is
roughly
referred to as ―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:

Firstly,
linguistics
is
descriptive
while
traditional
grammar
is
prescriptive.
A
linguist
is
interested in what is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its
aspects, but does not prescribe rules of ―correctness‖.

Secondly, modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written.
Traditional grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over-emphasize, the
importance of the written word, partly because of

its permanence.
Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does

not force
languages into a Latin-based framework
. To modern linguists ,it is unthinkable to judge one
language
by
standards
of
another.
They
are
trying
to
set
up
a
universal
framework,
but
that
would be based on the features shared by most of the languages used by mankind.
1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic



―
共时
‖
和

―
历时
‖

synchronic(
共
时
的
)
:
a
kind
of
description
which
takes
a
fixed
instant(usually,but
not
necessarily,the present),as its point of grammars are of this kind.(
共时的描写
以一个固定的 时间
(
通常
,
但非必须是现在
)
为它的观察角度
,
大多数的语法书属于此类型
.)
.
diachronic(
历时的
)
:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.(
在语言的历
史过程中研究语言
.)

The
description
of
a
language
at
some
point
of
time
in
history
is
a
synchronic
study;
the
description of language as it changes through time is a
diachronic
study. A diachronic study is
a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.
e.g
(1) an
essay
entitled
“On
the
sue
of
THE”,
for
example,
may
be
synchronic,
if
the
author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover
a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alernation.


(2) a study of the features of the English used in Shakepeare?s time and would be a
synchronic study, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would
be a diachronic study.
1.9.3
langue & parole
―
语言
‖
和

―
言语
‖

langue(
语言
)
: the linguistic competence of the speaker.(
说话者的语言能力
.)

parole(
言语
)
: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).(
语言的实际现象或语
料
.)
The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist
Saussure
in the early 20
th
century.

Langue

refers
to
the
abstract
linguistic
system
shared
by
all
the
members
of
a
speech
community,
and
parole

refers
to
the
realization
of
language
in
actual
use,
or
the
actual
or
actualized language.
语言是一个语言社会的所有成员共 同使用的抽象语言系统。
言语是对于这些
抽象语言系统的实际运用。

What
linguists
should
do
is
to
abstract
langue
from
parole,
i.
e.
to
discover
the
regularities
governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
(1) Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation.
语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，
是因人而异的。

(2) Langue not actually spoken by an individual , parole always a naturally occruing event.
(3) Langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus nto suitable
for systematic investigation.
What
a
linguist
ought
to
do,
according
to
Saussure,
is
to
abstract
langue
from
instances
of
parole,
i.e.
to
discover
the
regularities
governing
all
instances
of
parole
and
make
than
the
subject
of
linguistics.
The
langue-parole
distinction
is
of
great
important,
which
casts
great
influence on later linguists.
1.9.4 Competence and performance
语言能力和语言运用

competence(
语言能力
)
: a
language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
(
一个
语言使用者关于语言系统规则的基本理解
.)

performance(
语言应用
)
: the actual use of language in concrete situations.(
指在具体场景中语言
的真实使用
.)
The distinction is discussed by

the American lingu
ist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‘s.

Competence----
the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language.

Performance ----the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.
According
to
N.
Chomsky,
―compentence‖
is
the
ideal
user‘s
knowle
dge
of
the
rules
of
his
language
理想的语言使用者的抽象语言知识
and
―performance‖
is
the
actual
realization of this knowledge in utterance , in linguistic communication.
语言使
用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际运用。

Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences
and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities.
A speaker‘s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological
and
social
factors.
So
a
spearker‘s
performance
does
not
always
match
or
equal his supposed compentence.
Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other
words,
they
should
discover
what
an
ideal
speaker
knows
of
his
native
language.
How
is
Saussure‘s
distinction
between
langue
and
parole
similar
to
Chomsky‘s
distinction
between competence and performance?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and
the actual use of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system
for serious study.
How
is
Saussure‘s
distinction
between
langue
and
parole
differ
to
Chomsky‘s
distinction
between competence and performance?
Chomsky‘s competence
-performance distinction is not exactly the same as , though similar to ,
F. de. Saussure‘s langue
-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a
set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property
of
the
mind
of
each
individual
.
Saussure
looks
at
language
more
from
a
sociological
or
sociolinguistics
point
of
view
than
y
since
the
latter
deals with his issures psychologically or psycholinguistically.
索绪尔的理论 与乔
姆斯基的理论的不同之处在于索绪尔是从语言的社会学角度来谈论语言；而乔姆
斯基是从语 言的心理学角度来谈论语言的。

1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic
etic(
非位的
)
:
a
term
in
contrast
with
emic
which
originates
from
American
linguist
Pike‘s
distinction
of
phonetics
and

etic
mans
making
far
too
many,
as
well
as
behaviously
inconsequential,differentiations,just
as
was
often
the
case
with
phonetic
ic analysis in linguistics proper .(
术语来自于美国语言学家派克对于语音学和音位学的
区分
.
他更容易面临
‖
非位
‖
而不是
‖
位学
‖
的倾向
,
也就是实践中弄出来过多的不重要的区别
,
严格的
语言学中有关语言和音位 的分析就是这样的例子
.)
4.
emic(
位学的
)
:
a
term
in
contrast
with
etic
which
originates
from
American
linguist
Pike‘s
distinction of phonetics and emic set of speech acts and events must be one that
is
validated
as
meaningful
via
final
resource
to
the
native
members
of
a
speech
community
rather than via a
ppeal to the investigator‘s ingenuit
y or intuition alone.(< br>言语行为和事件中的位学
系统必须是有效而有意义的
,
是通过言语社会中的本族 语者而不仅仅是调查者的聪明和直觉获得
的
.)
what is speech and what is writing?

Which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or wirting?
Why ?
Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.
Modern linguistics regards
the spoken language as primary , not the written.
No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the
primary of speech over writing.
Speech is primary, because it existed long long bfore writing
systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write.
Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds individual
sounds,
as
in
English
and
French
as
in
Japanese.

In
contrast
to
speech,
spoke
form
of
language,
writing
as
written
codes,
give
language
new
scope and
use that
speech does
not
have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other.
Secondly, messanges can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read
Beowuff,
Samuel
Johnson,
and
Edgar
A
Poe.
Thirdly,
oral
messages
are
readily
subject
to
distortion,
either
intentional
or
unintentional,
while
written
messages
allow
and
encourage
repeated unalterable reading. Most modern linguistics analysis is focused on speech, different
from grammarians of the last century and tehre to fore.
Speech enjoys priority over writing in modern linguistic study for the following reasons:
(1)Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution
(2)A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.
(3)Speech is the form in which imfants acquire their native language.
What is linguistic potential ? what is actual linguistic behaviour?
These
two
terms,
or
the
potential-behavior
distinction,
were
made
by
M.A.K
Halliday
in
the
1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his
culture, and similarlly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many
topics. What he actually says (i.e. ―his actual linguistic behaviour‖) on a certain occasion to a
certain
person
is
what
he
has
chosen
from
many
possible
injustice
items,
each
of
which
he
could have said linguistic potential.

In
what
way
do
language
,
competence
and
linguistic
potential
agree?
In
what
way
do
they
differ? And their counterparts?
Language,
competence
and
linguistic
potential
have
some
similar
features,
but
they
are
innately different. Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventins; competence is
a property or attribute of each ideal sp
eaker‘s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus
or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation.
In other words, langue is invisialbe but reliable abstract system. Competence means‖ knowing‖,
abd linguistic potential

set of possibilities for ―doing ‖ ro ― performing actions‖. They are similar
in
that
they
refer
to
the
constant
underlying
the
utterance,
that
constitute
what
Saussure,
Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance
and actual linguistic behavior.
Parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.
第三章

Chapter 3




Lexicon
词汇

Teaching
aims:

let
the
students
have
a
brief
knowledge
about
morphemes
and
the
basic
word-formation methods
Focal points:
definition and classification of morphemes; major word-formation methods
Teaching procedure

Lexicon
：
In its most general sense, lexicon is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, it
deals with the analysis and creation of words.
Word
3.1 What is word
Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native- speakers, whether it is
expressed in spoken or written form.
词是个表达单位，不管是在口语还是在书面语中，说母语的人对
词 有种普遍的直觉识别能力。

3.1.1 Three senses of “word”“
词
”
的三种含义

a.
a physical definable unit:
是自然的有界限单位





word may be seen as a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.
词可
以看作是两个间隔或空白之间的音段成分或字母的组合群。

b.
the common factor underlying a set of forms
是支配一组形式的共同因素。

Word
is
the
common
factor
underlying
a
set
of
forms,
a
unit
of
vocabulary,
a
lexical
item,
or
a
lexeme.
词是在一组形式之下的共同要素，是词汇的单位，是一个词条，或是一个词位。

lexicon
: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided
with semantic interpretation.
lexeme(
词位
)
:A separate unit of meaning,usually in the form of a word(e.g.‖dog in the manger‖)

Lexeme-----is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a
language, which appears in different grammatical contexts.
词位被假 定为语言词汇系统中潜在于最
小单位之下的抽象单位，而最小单位是在不同的语法环境中出现的。

e. g. boy boys; check, checks , checking, checked; write, writes, wrote, writing, written; fat, fatter,
fattest
boy, check, write, and fat are the lexemes.
c.
a grammatical unit
是一个语法单位。

e.g. It is kind of you ,Miss Hou.
Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.
3.1.2 Identification of words
词的识别

1. stability
稳定性

Words
are
the
most
stable
of
all
linguistic
units,
in
respect
of
their
internal
structure,
that
is,
the
constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative
positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the it is all right for us to rearrange
the constituents in a sentence to a certain degree .
所有语言单位中词是最稳定的，就 其内部结构来说，
跟句子层面成分相对的位置灵活性相比，复合词的组成成分一般不能重新调整次序。但 是句子成分却可
以做一定程度的重新排列。

e.g. The chairman looked at the audience.
主席看观众





The audience loooked at the chairman.
观众看主席。

2. Relative uninterruptibility
相对的连续性

By uninterruptibility, we mean new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are
several parts in a word. Nor is allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word.
连续性，是指即使一个词由几个部分构成，新的成分也不能插进词的中间。各部分之间也不允许有停顿。

3. A minimum free form
最小的自由形式


It was first suggested by Leonard B
loomfield. H eadvocated treating sentence as ―the maximum

free form‖ and word‖ the minimum free form‖, word being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself,
a complete utterance.
由布龙菲尔德首先提出来。他提倡把句子看作
―
最大的自由形 式
‖
，把词看作
―
最小
的自由形式
‖
。词是能独立 构成一个完整语句的最小的单位。

3.1.3

Classification of words
词的分类

a.
Variable vs. invariable words
可变化词和不变词


Words can be classfied according to their variability.
根据可变性可以对词进行分类。

In variable words----- one could find ordered and regular series of gramartically different word forms;
on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. Thus , each ordered series constitutes
paradigm.
关于可变化词，
人们 可以找到一系列整齐而有规则的词形，
它们在语法上是不同的；
另一方
面，词的一部分 相对保持不变。因此每一个整齐的系列构成一个集合。

Invariable words ------refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not
have inflective endings.
不变词指
since,when, seldom, through, hello
这一类词。它们没有形态结尾。

b.
Grammatical words vs. lexical words
语法词和词汇词



In
terms
of the meaning
expressed
by
words,
they
can
be
classified
into
Grammatical
words
vs.
lexical words.
就表达的意义来说，词可以分为语法词和词汇词。


Grammatical
words/
function
words ------those
which
express
grammatical
meanings,
such
as
,
conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words. (
表达语法意义的是语法词< br>,
如连词
,
介词
,
冠词
,
代词
.)

Lexical words/ content words--------those which have lexical meanings, that is , those which refer to
substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, re lexical words. (
具有词
汇意义指物质
,
动作和性质的是词 汇词
,
如名词
,
动词
,
形容词
,
副词.)
As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its
different parts
together,
the
lexical
words
are
also
known
as
content
words
and
grammatical ones
function
words.
词汇词承载了语言的主要内容，而语法词是用来把 不同的片段连接在一起的，所以词
汇词又叫做实义词，语法词又叫做功能词。

c.
Closed-class words vs. open-class words
封闭类词和开放类词

The distinction of grammatical words and lexical words leads to distinction of ―colsed
-
class‖ words and
―open
-
class‖ words.
语法词和词汇词的区别导致了封闭词类和开放词类的区别。

Closed-class word(
封闭词类
):------ a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are
not regularly added, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. .(
封 闭词类的成员数
目是确定的
,
有限的
.
新成员不会有规律地增加.
例如代词
,
介词
,
连词
,
冠词等
. )
open-class word(
开放类词
)
:------- a word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited,such
as nouns,verbs,adjectives,and many adverbs.(
开放类词的成员数目原则上是无穷的
,
无限的
.
例如名词
,
动词
,
形容词和多数副词
.)
What are open classes? What are closed classes?

In English, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs make up the largest part of the vocabulary. They are
“open
-
class
words”,
since
we
can
regularly
add
new
lexica
l
entries
to
these
classes.
The
other
syntactic categories are, for the most part, closed classes, or closed-class words. The number of them
is hardly alterable, if they are changeable at all.

d.
Word class
词类

Classify words either by analyzing the various grammatical, semantic, and phonological properites of
the words in language, or by grouping them into classes on the basis of formal similarities in PART
OF SPEECH in traditional grammar.
要 划分词类，更现实的方法是分析词在语言中的不同的语法特征，
语义特征和音系特征，
或者根据 形态变化和分布方面的形式相似形来给词分组。
在传统语法中词类
part
of speech
是封闭的。


Particles
、
Auxiliaries
、

Pro-form
、
Determiners
助词，助动词、代词形式、限定词

3.2The formation of word
词的形成

3.2.1
Morpheme and Morphology
语素和形态学

The
smallest
components
are
known
as
morphemes.
But
they
themselves
cannot
further
analyzed.
最小的成分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。

Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and
content,
a
unit
that
cannot
be
divided
into
further
smaller
units
without
destroying
or
drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.
(
就表达 和内容之间的关系看
,
语素是最小的语言单位
,
不能再进一步分成更小的单位 而不破坏或彻底改变词汇一样或语法意义
.)
Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning ,the basic unit in the study of morphology.
词素是形态
学研究的最基本的单位。



Morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit of language.
词素是单词的最小的有意义的组成部分。

The word”boxes”, for example, has two morphemes: “box” and ”
-
es”, neither of which permits
further
division
or
analysis
if
we
don?t wish
to
sacrifice
meaning.
Therefore,
a
morpheme
is
considered the minimal unit of meaning.
Morphology---- is the immediate concern of

a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal
structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.
直接涉及语素研究的语言学分
支叫做 形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。

What is morphology?
什么是形态学？

Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by
which words are formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology, and
lexical / derivational morphology. Inflectional morphology studies the inflections and lexical
/ derivational morphology studies the word- fromation.
形态学是语法学的一个分支，研究单
词的内部结构和构词规则。形态学 有两个分支：曲折形态学和词汇或派生形态学。曲折形态
学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；派生形态 学研究单词的构成和词义的表达。

What does morphology study? The internal structure of words and the rules that govern their
formation.
The two fields
：




Inflectional morphology
曲折形态学
: the study of inflections



Derivational morphology:
派生形态学
the study of word-formation
3.2.2
Types of morphemes
morpheme

free:

free root


















bound


bound root



root






















affix






inflectional
































derivational



prefix








































suffix
1.
free morpheme and bound morpheme
自由语素和粘着语素

Morphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occuring alone.
根据能否单
独出现，可以将语素分为两类。

free morpheme(
自由语素
)
:-------Those morphemes which may occur alone, that is , those which may
constitue words by themselves, are free morphe mes(
能单独出现
,
也就是能独自成词的
,
叫做自由语素
.)
Free morphemes
: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves
bound morpheme(
粘着语素
)
: -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They
must appear with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(dogs
中的
-s,
national
中的
-al, disclose
中的
dis-
不能单独出现
,
它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现
,
这样的语素叫做
粘着语素
. )
Bound morphemes:
morphemes

which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with
other morphemes to form words
. What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?

A “free morpheme” is a morpheme that constitutes a word by itself, such as ?bed”, “tree”, etc. A
“bound morpheme” is one that appears with at

least another morpheme, such as “
-
s” in “beds”,
“
-
al”
in
“national”
and
so
on.
All
monomorphemic
words
are
free
morphemes.
Those
polymorphemic words are either compounds (combination of two or more free morphemes) or
derivatives (word derived from free morphemes).

2.
root, affix and stem
词根，词缀和词干

（
1
）
root(
词根
)
:
the
base
from
of
a
word
that
cannot
further
be
analyzed
without
total
loss
of
identity.

That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. (
词根是词的基
本形式
,
不能再作进一步的分析而完全不 损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就
是词根。

All words contain a root morpheme.
所有的词都包含一个词根语素。

A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite
meaning it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
词根，粘着语素的一种，
往往被看作是一个单词的一个部分。
它本身有清楚，
确定的意义，
却不能被单独使用 ，
而只能与另外
一个词根结合在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在一起才能形成一个单词。

（
2
）
affix(
词缀
)
: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to
another
morpheme
(the
root
or
stem).(< br>词缀是一个构词成分的集合
,
它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或
词干上
.)
Affixes
are
limited
in
number
in
a
language,
and
are
generally
classified
into
three
subtypes,
namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the
word .
语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。

Prefix
前缀
----prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of
the original word.

dis-; un-; mis- para-; mini-
前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。

Exception: be-; en-; em-;

Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.
For example: little----belittle; large---enlarge; rich--- enrich; body---embody
Suffix
后缀
:-----suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the orginal word and
in many cases change its part of speech. -ly; -ness; -tion; -ise;
后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的
意义，并且大所数情况下改变词性。

Infix
中缀
:

foot/feet; goose/geese
–
oo-; -ee-

some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to
divide them into two parts.
tatawa


―a person who will laugh‖

tum
atawa


―a person who is laughing‖

ngitad






―dark‖

ngum
itad




―to be dark‖

In
this
language,
the
infix
–
um-
is
inserted
after
the
first
consonant
of
a
noun
or
adjective.
(fikas-
―strong‖


f
umikas--
―to be strong‖

（
3
）
Stem(
词干
)
: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be
added.(
词干是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合
.)
a stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. A stem can be a bound root, a
free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
派生 词缀可加在已存在的形式词上形成的一个新词，原来存在
的形式词被称为词干。词干可以是粘着词根，自 由词素和一个派生词。

What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?
A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In
other words, a “root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” is
a four-
morpheme derivative which keeps its free morpheme “nation” as its root when “ inter
-
”, “
-
al”
and “
-
ism” are taken away.

A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the
sa
me as, and in other cases, different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends”, “friend” is both
the root and the stem, but in the word “friendships”, “friendships” is its stem, “friend” is its root. Some
words (i. e., compounds ) have more than one
root ,e. g., “mailman” , “girlfriend” ,ect. An “affix” is the
collective term for the type of formative that can be used, only when added to another morpheme(the
root
or
stem).
Affixes
are
limited
in
number
in
a
language,
and
are
generally
classified
into
three
subtypes: prefix, suffix and infix, e. g. , “mini
-
”, “un
-
”, ect.(prefix); “
-
ise”, “
-
tion”, ect.(suffix).

3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix
曲折词缀和派生词缀

Inflection/inflexion(
屈折变化
):------
the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition
of inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case,which do not change the
grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.(
屈折变化是通过附加屈折词缀的语法
关系的表现
,
如数
,
人称,
有定性
,
体和格
,
屈折词缀不会改变所附加词语的语法类.)
Inflectional morpheme
: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or
grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.

E.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest John
‘s

derivation(
派生词
):------the manifestion of relation between stems and affixes through the
addition
of
derivational
affixes.
Different
from
compounds,derivation
shows
the
relation
between roots and affixes.(
通过增加派生词素来表明词干与词缀关系的

构词法。跟复合词不同
,
派
生词则能表明词根和词缀之间的关系
.)
Derivational morpheme
: a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words.
There are three kinds according to position in the new words, : prefix, suffix and infix.
3.2.3
Inflection and word formation
屈折变化和词的形成

There are two fields Morphology concerns:
形态学涉及两个领域：

(1) the study of Inflections(also called inflectional Morphology)
研究屈折变化

(2) the study of word-formation (often referred to as lexical or derivational morphology)
研究词的形成，
常指词汇形态学或派生形态学

1. Inflection
屈折变化

What is inflection/inflexion?
“Inflection” is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes,
such as number, person, finiteness, aspect, and case, which does not change the grammatical class of
the items to which they are attached.
屈折变化是 通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现，如数，人称，
有定性，体和格，屈折词汇不会改变所附加词语的语 法类。

2
．

word formation
词的形成

Word
–
formation, in its restricted sense, refers to the propcess of word variations signalling lexical
relationships.
It
can
be
further
subclassified
into
the
compositional
type(compond)
and
the
deriational
type(derivation).
词 的形成，从严格意义上讲，指词形变化的过程，这些词形变化是标志
词项之间的关系的。这可以进一步分 为复合类（复合词）和派生类（派生词）两种。

A.
Compond
复合词

Compond, one the whole, refers to those words that consisit of more than one lexical morpheme, or
the way to join two separate words to produce a single form.
整体上说，复合词指那些由一个以 上的词
汇语素构成的词，或者由两个独立的词连接起来构成新的形式。

In compounds, the two lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.
复合词中，两个词汇语素可
能是不同的词类。

compound(
复合词
): polymorphemic words(
多语素词
)
which consist wholly of free morphemes,suc


as paymaster,moon walk,babysist,godfather,sunflower,classroom,blackb oard,snowwhite,etc.(
组成成分
都是自由语素的多语素词
.)
B
．
Derivation
派生词

Derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.
派生词能表明词根和词缀之间的关系。

3
.2.4 The counterpoint of phonology and morphology
音系学和形态学的对立

1.
morpheme and phoneme (p93-95)
语素和音位

A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound; a morpheme is the smallest unit in grammar
音位是语
音中最小单位；语素是语法中的最小单位。

Morphonology
形态音系学
; morphophonemics
形态音位学

Asingle phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.
单个的音位可以
代表一个语素，但他们并不总是一致的。

2.
Morphemic structure and phonological structure
语素结构和音位结构

Morphemes may also be represented by phonological strucutres other than a single phoneme.
语素也可以不用单个音位表示，而用音位结构表示。

The syllabi c( phonological) structure of a word and its morphemic (grammatical) structure do
not necessarily correspond.
一个词的音节（音位）结构和语素结构不一定是一致的。

3.

allomorph
语素变体

A
morpheme
is
a
linguistic
abstraction;
it
is
a
concept.
It
needs
to
be
represented
in
certain
phonological and orthographic forms. Those forms are called morphs.
In morphemic transcription, morphemes in the abstract notion are put between braces like

Allomorph
: A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. The variant forms of the same
morpheme are called its allomorphs.
allomorph(
语素变体
)
:
any
of
the
different
form
of
a

example,in
English
the
plural
mortheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as/s/in cats,as/z/ in dogs and
as/iz/ in /s/,/z/,and /iz/ are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.
3.
Morphophonology or Morphophonemics
形态音系学，又叫形态音位学

Morphophonology
(Morphonology)
or
Morphophonemics
(Morphonemics)
is
a
branch
of
linguistics
refering
to
the
analysis
and
classification
of
the
phonological
factors
that
affect
the
appearance
of
morphemes, and , correspondingly, the grammatical factors that affect the appearance of phonemes.
At any rate, it studies the interrelationships between phonology and morpholog y.
形态音系学或形态音
位学，是语言学的一个分支，指对影响语素形式的音位要素的分析和分 类，以及对影响音位形式的语法
要素的分析和分类。总之，它是研究音系学和形态学之间的相互关系。< br>
a.
Phonologically conditioned
音位的限制

The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.
语素的形式可能会
受到音位要素的限制。

.
dissimilation(
异化作用
)
: the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of
another, so that the sounds become less alike,or different.(
指一个音段影响了另一个音段的 清晰度
,
以致语音变得不太相似或不同
.)
b. Morphologically conditioned
形态的限制

What is a morpheme? What is an allomorph?

The “morpheme” is the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content, a
unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is
lexical
or
grammatical.
The
word
“boxes”,
for
example,
has
two
morphemes:
“box”
and
“
-
es”,
neither of which permits further division or analysis if we don?t wish to sacrifice meanin
g. Therefore
a morpheme is considered the minimal unit of meaning. Allomorphs, like allophones vs. phones, are
the
alternate
shapes
(and
thus
phonetic
forms)
of
the
same
morphemes.
Some
morphemes,
though,
have
no
more
than
one
invariable
form
in
all
contex
ts,
such
as
“dog”,
“cat”,
etc.
The
variants of the plurality “
-
s” make the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map
-maps,
mouse-mice, sheep-sheep etc.
What
is
lexicon?
What
is
word?
What
is
lexeme?
What
is
vocabulary?
Lexicon?
Word?
Lexeme? Vocabulary?

“Lexicon”, in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary. In its technical sense, however,
lexicon
deals
with
the
analysis
and
creation
of
words,
idioms
and
collocations.
“Word”
is
a
unit
of
expression
which
has
universal
intuitive
recognition
by
native- speakers,
whether
it
is
expressed
in
spoken
or
written
form.
This
definition
is
perhaps
a
little
vague
as
there
are
different
criteria
with
regard to its identification and definition. It seems that it is hard, even impossible, to define “word”
linguistically. Nonetheless it is universally agreed that the following three senses are involved in the
definition of “word”, none of which, though, is expected to cope with all the situations: (1) a physically
definable unit, e.g. [it iz ?w

] (phon
ological), “It is wonder” (orthographic); (2) the common factor
underlying a set of forms (see what is the common factor of “checks”, “checked”, “checking ”, etc.); (3)
a grammatical unit (look at (1) again; every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence). According
to Leonard Bloomfield, a word is a minimum free form (compare: a sentence is a maximum free form,
according to Bloomfield). There are other factors that may help us identify words: (1) stability (no great
change of orthographic features); (2) relative uninterruptibility (we can hardly insert anything between
two parts of a word or between the letters). To make the category clearer we can subclassify words
into a few types: (1) variable and invariable words; (2) grammatical and lexical words (e. g. to, in, etc.,
and table, chair, etc. By “lexical words” we mean the words that carry a semantic content, e.g., nouns,
verbs, adjectives and many adverbs; (3) closed-class and open-class words. In order to reduce the
ambiguity of the term “word”, the

term “lexeme” is postulated as the abstract unit which refers to the
smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A
lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written texts. For ex
ample, “write” is the
lexeme of the following words: “write”, “write”, “wrote”, “writing”, and “written.” “Vocabulary” usually
refers to all words or lexical items a person has acquired about technical or/and untechnical things. So
we encourage our student
s to enlarge their vocabulary. “vocabulary” is also used to mean word list or
glossary.
What is collocation?

“Collocation” is a term used in lexicology by some linguists to refer to the habitual co
-occurrences of
individual lexical items. For example, we
can “read” a “book”; “correct” can narrowly occur with “book”
which
is
supposed
to
have
faults,
but
no
one
can
“read”
a
“mistake”
because
with
regard
to
co-occurrence these two words are not collocates.

3.3

Lexical change
词汇变化

3.3.1
Lexical change proper
特有的词汇变化

Major ways to create new words:

Compounding
: a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.
blackboard


godfather


baby-sit

cross-cultural
Derivation
:
the
process
by
which
new
words
are
formed
by
the
addition
of
affixes
to
the
roots
or
words.




e.g. finalize


widen


hospitalize

clockwise (
顺时针
)
Blending
混成法

: a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
blending(
混成法
)
:
a
relatively
complex
form
of
compounding,in
which
two
words
are
blended
by
joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the
initial parts of the two words.(
混成法是一种相对复杂的混合形式
,
由两个单词混合 而成
,
一般
是一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连接起来
,
或者是把两个单词的开头部分连
接起来
.)
transistor(transfer+resister)
晶体管
; smog(smoke+fog)
烟雾
; positron(positive+electron)
正电子
;

boatel(boat+hotel)
水上旅馆；

brunch(breakfast+lunch)
早午餐；


smaze(smog+haze);
telecast(television+ broadcast)
电视广播

; motel (motor +hotel)
；


cremains(cremated+remains)
骨灰；

telex(teleprinter+exchange)
电报，电传打字机；

modem(modulator+demodulator)
调制解调器；

anacom(analog+computer)
分析计算机；


digicom(digital+computer)
数码计算机；

insulac(insulating++lacquer)
绝缘材料

F usion
溶
合
法
，
混
成
法
的
一
种
,eg.
Stample(trample+stamp
on);
crackdown(crackup+breakdown)
Abbreviation
缩写词
:
a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.








e.g. TV(television) Dr(doctor) hr(hour)

ft(foot or feet)
clipping
截断法
:
a kind of abbreviation of longer words or phrases
。
A new word is created by
A.
Cutting the final part (or with a slight variation)
截掉后面的部分（或有些小的变化）

memorandum ---memo

advertisement---ad;

bicycle----bike;


professor
—
prof


fantic-- fan
B.
Cutting the initial part
删去开头的部分

telephone---phone; omnibus
—
bus; helicopter
—
copter;

aeroplane---plane
C.
Cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly
删去开头和结尾相应的部分









e.g. electronic mail ---e-mail

high fidelity---hi-fi; influenza
—
flu; refrigerator---fridge
Acronym
缩略语
: a word created by combining the initial letters of a number of words.

acronym(
缩略词
)
: is made up form the first letters of the name of an organization,which has a heavily
modified
headword.(
缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的
,
而这个组织机构的名 称有多重
修饰语
.)
e.g.
UNESCO
联合国教科文组织；


APEC

Sars

CD


laser

radar
(radio


detecting
and ranging)
；

WB
世界银行


Initialism
: VOA

BBC

WTO

CIA



EEC
欧洲经济共同体；

Back- formation
逆构词法
:
a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an
existing word.
back- formation(
逆构词法
)
: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by
deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.(
构词法中一种不规则的
类型
,
即把一个语言中已经存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀
,
由此造出一个较短的单词.)








televise (from television) donate (from donation) enthuse (from enthusiasm)
Analogical creation
类推构词

Borrowing
借词
: the taking over of words from other languages


A.
loanword(
借词
)
: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slight
adaptation,in some cases,to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.(
借词的形
式和意义都是借用的
,
有时为了适应新语言的音位系统
,
可以有些细小的改变
.)
B.
.loanblend(
混合借词
)
: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the
meaning is fully borrowed.(< br>指借词的一部分来自本国语
,
另一部分来自外来语
,
但是意义全都是借 来的
.)
C.
loanshift(
转移借词
)
: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.(
转移借词
的意义是借用的
,
但是形式是来 自本国语
.)
D.
Loan
translation(
翻译借词
):
a
special
type
of
borrowing,
in
which
each
morphemeor
word
is
translated in the equivalent morpheme or word in another language.(
翻译借词是一种特殊的借用
,
每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中的语素或单词对等地翻译过来的
.)

Calque
仿造词

Coinage :
the invention of a new word
3.3.2
Phonological change
音位变化

Changes in sounds lead to changes in form
(1)vowel sound change:
Great Vowel Shift
in history
(2)
loss(
脱落
)----
:the
loss
of
sound
can
first
reter
to
the
disappearance
of
the
very
sound
as
a
phoneme in the phonological system.(
语音脱落首先可以指音位系统中作为音位的某个语音的消失
.)
(3)sound addition
添加

(4)metathesis
换位

(5)

assimilation(
同化作用
)
:
refers
to
the
change
of
a
sound
as
a
result
of
the
influence
of
an
adjacent sound,which is more specifically called ‖contact‖or ‖contiguous‖ assimilation.(
指由于邻近语音
的影响而产生的语音变化
,
更明确的叫法是
‖
接触同化
‖
或

―
邻近同化
.‖)


3.3.3
Morpho-syntactical change
形态句法变化

(1) Morphological change
形态变化

(2) Syntactical change
句法变化

3.3.4
Semantic change
语义变化

The change of meaning of a word
Broadening
词义扩大

Narrowing
词义缩小

Meaning shift
词义转移
: a process in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new,
sometimes related meaning.
Class shift (conversion
变换
)
词性变换
: zero- derivation
零派生

Elevation and degradation

.
folk etymology(
俗词源
)
: a change in form of a word or phrase,resulting from an incorrect popular
notion
of
the
origin
or meaning
of
the
term
or from
the
influence of
more familiar
terms
mistakenly
taken to be analogous .(
指词或短语的形式由于对词源的错误而又普遍的解释或对词义的错误理解
,
或者< br>由于受到更熟悉的词汇的影响而进行错误的类推
,
导致了新的意义的产生
.)
3.3.5 Orthographic change
拼写的变化


第五章

第五章

Chapter 5


Meaning
意义

Teaching
aims:
enable
the
students
to
have
a
better
understanding
of
semantics
and
wording
meaning.

Focal points:
Leech‘s seven classifications of meaning, semantic triangle, sense relations between
words and sentences
Teaching difficulties:
sense relations between sentences, different types of antonymy

Teaching procedure
The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics.
关注意义研究的学科
. In this chapter,
we will study another branch of linguistics -----semantics.
. An Introduction
Definition:
In
linguistics,
it
is
the
study
of
the
meaning
of
linguistic
units,
words
and
sentences
in
particular.
语义学是对语言单位，尤其是词和句子的意义的研究。

Its
goal
is
to
reveal
how
language
is
matched
with
their
proper
meanings
by
the
speakers
of
that
language.
Semantics is an old and young branch.


Dating from Plato, the study of meaning has a long history. Philosophers, psychologists, and
sociologists
all
claim
a
deep
interest
in
the
study
of
meaning,
although
they
differ
in
their
focus
of
interest.
Philosophers: the relation between linguistic expression and what they refer to in the real world and
evaluation of the truth value of it.
Psychologists: understanding the working of human mind through language.
So you many find several books bearing the title ―semantics‖ but talking about different things. Here we
just focus on linguistic semantics.

In linguistics, compared with other branches we have discussed, semantics is very young and new.
The term semantics is a recent addition to the English language. It has only a history of over 100
years.
1893



French linguist Breal coined ―semantique‖

1897



Breal first use it as the science of meaning.
1900



its English version came out

1980s


semantics began to be introduced into China ―Cinderella of linguistics‖ (Kempson)

One of the most famous books on semantics is
The Meaning of Meaning
published in 1923.
Semantics----semantics
refers to
the
study
of
the
communication of meaning
through
language.
Or
simply, semantics is defined as the study of meaning.
语义学是研究语言意义的学科， 它主要是对词义
和句子两方面进行研究。

5.1. Meanings of “meaning”

“
意义
”
的意义
P158
1 what is meaning?
What is the meaning of ―desk‖?


√







I didn't mean to hurt you. (intend)






Life without faith has no meaning. (value)






It was John I mean not Harry

(refer to )

√

Though it is difficult to define, ―meaning‖ has the following meaning: (1) an intrinsic property; (2) the
connotation of a word; (3) the words put after a dictionary entry; (4) the position an object occupies in a
system; (5) what the symbol user actually refers to; (6) what the symbol user should refer to; (7) what
the
symbol
user
believes
he
is
referring
to;
(8)
what
the
symbol
interpreter
refers
to;
(9)
what
the
symbol
interpreter
believes
it
refers
to;
(10)
what
the
symbol
interpreter
believes
the
user
refers
to…linguists
argued
about
―meaning
of
meaning‖
fiercely
in
the
result
of
―realism‖,
―conceptualism/mentalism‖,
―mechanism‖,
―contextualism‖,
―behaviorism‖,
―functionalism‖,
etc.
Mention ought to be made of the ―Semantic Triangle Theory‖ of Ogden & Richards. We use a word and
the listener knows
what it refers to because, according to the theory, they have acquired the same
concept/reference of the word used and of the object/referent.
2. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?
(1) The naming theory
命名论
----
one of the oldest notions converning meaning, and also a very primitive one, was the naming theory
proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theory , the linguistic forms or symbols,
in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. So
words are just names or label for things.
命名论是最原始的语义理论，该理论是把词看作所指事物的名
称。

The limitations of the naming theory:
a.
first of all, the naming theory seems appliable to nouns only. Nouns can be considered as names or
labels, but verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, such as ―think‖

―hard ‖ ―slowly‖ are definitely not labels
of objects.
b.
Besides, within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the
real world
at
all
such as
―ghost‖
―dragon‖ ―unicorn‖ and
also
nouns
that do
not denote
concrete
things, but abstract notions such as ―joy‖ ―im pulse‖.
命名论只能适用于名词，对于动词、形容词、副
词就无法解释了。即使是在爱名 词范围内也无法解释世界上本不存在的东西，例如
―ghost‖
―dragon‖
―unicorn‖
之类和一些抽象的概念，例如
―
高兴
joy‖―
冲动
impulse‖
等。

(2) the conceptualist view
意念论
------
The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to
(i.e.,between
language
and
the
real
world);
rather,
in
the
interpretation
of
meaning
they
are
linked
through the mediation of concepts in the mind.
意念论认为词汇与该词汇所指的事物之间的关系不是直< br>接的，而是间接的，是靠人脑中的意念来连接的。词汇是通过意念来指称事物，意念便是词汇的意义。
The conceptualist view is best illustrated by the classic senmantic triangle or triangle of significance
suggested by Odgen and Richards.< br>意念论可由著名的语义三角形来表述。语义三角形是论述和解释语
义现象的一种经典理论。

Semantic triangle
Proposed by Ogden & Richards in their ―The Meaning of Meaning‖. They saw the relationship betwe
en
the word and the thing it refers to is not direct. It‘s mediated by concept.


















thought or reference











symbol

















referent

In this diagram, the symbol or form refers to linguistic elements (words, phrases), the referent refers to
the things in the real world, and thought or reference refers to ―concept‖.

e.g. The dog over there looks unfriendly.
The word ―dog‖ is directly associated with a certain concept in our mind, i.e. what a ―dog‖ is like, but it
is not directly linked to the referent (the particular dog) in this particular case. Thus, the symbol of a
word signifies thing by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the mind of the
speaker of a language, and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.
Ogden and Richards presented the classic ―Semantic Triangle‖ as manifested in the following diagram,
in which the ―symbol‖ or ―form‖ refers to the linguistic elements (word, sentence, etc.), the ―referent‖
refer
s to the object in the world of experience, and ―thought‖ or ―reference‖ refers to concept or notion.
Thus, the symbol a word signifies ―things‖ by virtue of the ―concept‖, associated with the form of the
word in the mind of the speaker of the language. Th
e ―concept‖ thus considered is meaning of the
wo rd.
语义三角形最大的问题在于词语与所指事物没有必然的联系。
同一个事物可能或者可以用 不同的词
来表示。

(3) contextualism
语境论

What is contextualism?

―Contextualism‖
is
based
on
the
presumption
that
one
can
derive
meaning
from,
or
reduce
it
to,
observable context: the ―situational context‖ and the ―linguistic context‖.
语境论认为语言的意义离不开
使用语言的语境，语义存在与语境之中。语义不是抽象的，它是由语境所决定的。

Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to
the situational context:
它的前提是假设人们可以从语境中推知词义的意义，四个核心因素：


(1) the speaker and the hearer;
讲话人和听话人

(2) the actions they are performing at the time;
当时双方在做的事情

(3) various external objects and events;
其他外在的事件或事物

(4) deictic features.
指示成分

（语境中的代词）

The ―linguistic context‖ is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word‘s
co- occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in
communication.
Fox example: the meaning of the word ―black‖ differ in the two collocation of ―black hair ‖ and ―black
coffee‖

(4) Behaviorism
行为主义论

The behaviorism view is illustrated by Bloomfield.
Behaviorism refers to the attmpt to define the meaning of a language form as the ―situation in which
the
speaker utters
it
and
the
response
it
calls
forth
in
the
hearer‖.
Behaviorism
somewhat
clsoe
to
contextualism emphasizes on the psychological response.
行为主义论 和语境论的相似之处，行为主义
论也把语义放到语境中去研究，但它更注重人的心理活动，认为语言的意 义存在于语言使用者在交际过
程中对所接受的话语的反应。

3.
How many kinds of meaning did linguists find and study?

C. C. Fries (1952) makes a traditional distinction between lexical meaning and structural meaning. The
former
is
expres
sed
by
those
―meaningful‖
parts
of
speech,
such
as
nouns,
verbs,
adjectives,
and
adverbs, and is given in the dictionary associated with grammar. The latter expresses the distinction
between the subject and the object of a sentence, oppositions of definiteness, tense the number, and
the difference between statements, questions and requests. In a word, ―the total linguistic meaning of
any utterance consists of the lexical meaning of the separate words plus such structural meaning…‖

G. Leech (1981) categorize
s seven kinds of meaning, five of which are brought under the ―associative
meaning‖. Different from the traditional and the functional approach, F. R. Palmer (1981) and J. Lyons
(1977) suggest we draw a distinction between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, the former
being directly predictable from the grammatical and lexical features of the sentence, while the latter
includes all the various types of meaning not necessarily associated there to.
4. G. Leech recognizes seven types of meaning in his <> as follows:

(1) Conceptual meaning ------Logical, cognitive, or denotation content
逻辑的，认知的，或者外延的
内容

conceptual
meaning
:
the
central
part
of
meaning,
which
contains
logical,cognitive,or
denotative
content.
Associative meaning:
联想意义

(2) Connotative meaning------what is communicated by virtue of what language refers to.
内涵意义：通
过语言所指所传达的意义

(3) Social meaning-----what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.
社会意义：
所传达的关于语言使用的社会环境的意义

(4) Affective meaning-----what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.
感 情
意义：所传达的关于说话人或作者感情，态度方面的意义

(5) Reflected meaning------what is communicated throght association with another sense of the same
expression.
反射意义：通过联系同一表达式的其他意思所传达的意义

(6) Collocative meaning------what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur
in the environment of another word.
搭配意义：通过联想词语的常用搭配而传达的意义。

(7) Thematic meaning----what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms
of order and emphasis.
主题意义：通过由顺序和重音组织信息的方式所传达的意义

5. Leech says that the first type of meaning----- conceptual meaning----makes up the central part. It is
―denotative‖ in that it is concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or
refer to. In this sense, conceptual meaing overlaps to a large extent with the notion of reference.
利奇指
出，意义的第一种类型
- ---
概念意义
----
构成了意义的中心部分。这种意义是
―
外延
―
的，因为它关注词和他
所指事物之间的联系。从这点看，概念意义在很大程度上与指 称相交叉。

6
．
Philosophers use connotation, opposite to denotation, to mean the properties of the entity a word
denotes.
For
example,
the
denotation
of
human
is
any
person
such
as
John
and
Mary,
and
its
connotation
is
―biped‖,
―featherless‖,
―rational‖,
etc.
哲学家 们用内涵和外延相对，表示词所指实体的性
质。例如，人的外延是任何人，如约翰和玛丽；内涵是
―
两足动物
‖―
无羽毛的
‖―
有理性的
‖
等等。

7. ―connotative‖
----- refers to some additional, especially emotive, meaning.
内涵指的是一些附加的，
尤其是感情的意义。

denotation
: the core sense of a word or a phrade that relates it to phenomena in the real world.
connotation
: a term in a contrast with denotation,meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes.
Types of meaning (G. Leech)

5.2. The referential theory
指称论

1. The referential theory------the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it
refers to, or stand for, is known as referential theory.
把词语意义和它所指或所代表的事物联系起来的理
论，叫做指称论。

2. what is sense and what is reference? How are they related?
.reference
: the use of language to express a propostion,meaning the properties of the entity a word
denotes.
sense
: the literal meaning of a word or an expression,independent of situational context.
Sense------sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, which is a collection of
semantic meanings, abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dectionary compilers
are interested in.
意义是 词汇意义的一个侧面，
它是指词汇内在的抽象，
独立于语境之外的意义，
也是词
典字意。

Reference----reference
is
what
a
linguistic
form
refers
to
in
the
real
physical,
it
is
a
matter
of
the
relationship
between
the
form
and
the
reality,
between
the
linguistic
element
and
the
non-linguistic
world of experience.
所指意 义是词汇意义的另一个侧面，它是词汇在特定的语境中所指称的具体事物。
所指也叫
―
参照
‖―
或
―
指称
‖
，是指词和它们所代表的客观事物或现 象的关系，它表现于一定的上下文之中。

(1) linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. For
example: I was once bitten by a dog. / Mind you. There is a dog over there.
有着同样意义的词，在不同的情景中，它的所指也不相同。

(2) linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense. For example: ―morning star‖

and
― evening star.‖
有时所指相同，但意义却不同。

３
．
What
is
the
difference
between
meaning,
concept,
connotation,
sense,
implication,
denotation, notation, reference, implicature and signification?

―Meaning‖ refers to the association of language symbols with the real word.

―Concept‖ or ―notion‖ is the impression of objects in people‘s mind.

―connotation‖ is the implied meaning, similar to ―implication‖ and ―implicature‖.

―Sense‖ is the lexical position in which a word finds itself.


―Denotation‖, like ―sense‖, is not directly related with objects, but makes the abstract assumption of
the real world.

―Reference‖ is the word
-object relationship.

―Implicature‖,
in
its
narrow
sense,
refers
to
conversational
implicature
achieved
by
intentionally
violating
one
of
the
four
CP
maxims.
―Signification‖,
in
contrast
with
―value‖,
mean
the
meaning
of
situation may not have any communicativ
e value, like ―What‘s this?‖

４．
Sense & reference
sense and reference are the two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning. They are two
related but different aspects of meaning.
Sense-----the
inherent
meaning
of
the
linguistic
form.
It
is
the
collection
of
all
the
features
of
the
linguistic
form;
It‘s
abstract
and
de
-contextualized.
It‘s
the
aspect
of
meaning
dictionary
compilers are interested in. It is concerned with the intra-linguistic relations.

Reference-----What a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; It deals with the relationship
between the linguistic elements and the non-linguistic world of experience.
For example, the word ―dog‖ is given the definition ―a common domestic animal kept by human beings
for work, hunting etc or as a pet‖. This doesn‘t refer to any particular dog that exists in the real world,
but applies to any animal that meets the features described in the definition, so this is the sense of the
word ―dog‖. But if we say ―The dog is barking‖, we must be talking about a certain dog
existent in the
situation,
the
word
―dog‖
refers
to
a
dog
known
to
both
the
speaker
and
the
hearer.
This
is
the
reference of the word ―dog‖ in this particular situation.

To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content. But not every word
has a reference e.g. grammatical words
like but if
etc, don‘t refer to anything.

Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations.
e.g.


I was one bitten by a dog.
Mind you. There is a dog over there.
Here the two ―dog‖ bear the same sense, but have two different references in the two utterances.

Sometimes linguistic forms with the same reference might differ in sense

e.g. ―morning star‖ and ― evening star‖ can refer to the same star ―Venus‖

5.3
Major Sense relations
涵义关系

Words are in different sense relations with each other
There
are
generally
3
kinds
of
sense
relations:
sameness
relation,
oppositeness
relation
and
inclusiveness relation
一般来说有三种公认的涵义关系：即相同关系，对立关系和内包关系。

5.3.1. synonymy
同义关系

1. Sameness or close similarity of meaning.
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
synonymy
: is the technical name for the sameness relation.
同义关系：相同关系的专业术语

synonymy
同义词
----synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say
that words that are close in meaning.
指意义相同或相近的词。

2. What is synonymy?

―Synonymy‖
is
used
to
mean
sameness
or
close
similarity
of
meaning.
Dictionary
makers
(lexicographers) rely on the existence of synonymy for their definitions. Some semanticians maintain,
however,
that
there
are
no
real
synonyms,
because
two
or
more
words
named
synonyms
are
expected without exception to differ from one another in one of the following aspects: In shades of
meaning (e.g., finish, complete, close, conclude, terminate, finalize, end, etc.); In stylistic meaning;
In emotive meaning (or affective meaning); In range of use (or collocative meaning); In British and
American
English
usages
[e.g.,
autumn
(BrE), fall
(AmE)].
Simeon
Potter
said,―
Language
is
like
dress.
We
vary
our
dress
to
suit
the
occasion.
We
do
not
appear
at
a
friend‘s
silver
-wedding
anniversary in gardening clothes, nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-
jacket.‖ This means
the learning of synonyms is important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well.
3.
what are the major types of synonyms in English?
Complete
synonyms
绝对同义词
------synonyms
that
are
mutually
substitutable
under
all
circumstantces, are rare.
According to the way they differ, synonyms can be divided into the following groups:
(1) Dialectal synonyms-----synonyms used in different regional dialects
地域性同义词：在不同
的地域方言中所用的同义词

These
are
words
with
more
or
less
the
same
meaning
used
in
different
regional
dialects.
British
English
and
American
English
are
the
two
major
geographical
varienties
of
the
English language. Examples:

Britain English: autuman lift

luggage lorry petorl



flat





windscreen torch railway
American
English:
fall
elevator
baggage

truck
gasoline
apartment
windshield
flashlight
railroad
Girl
—
lass/ lassie; liquor/whiskey
(2) stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style
文体同义词：用于不同文体的同义词

Words
having
the
same
meaning
may
differ
in
style,
or
degree
of
formality.
In
other
words,
some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style. Examples:

Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent; start, begin, commence; kid, child, offspring; chap,
pal, friend, companion; room, chamber; kick the bucket, pop off; die, pass away, decease;
(3) emotive synonyms----synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
感性同义
词：在感性或评价方面不同的同义词

These
are
words
that
bear
the
same
meaning
but
express
different
emotions
of
the
user,
indicatiing the attitudes or bias of the user toward what he is talking about.
这些词的意义相同，
但表达了使用者不同的感情，表明了使用者对他所谈论事情的态度。

Examples:

a.
“
collaborator
”

and
“
accomplice
”

are
synonymous
in
that
they
share
the
meaning
of
“
a
person
who
helps
another
”
,
but
they
differ
in
that
at
collaborator
helps
another
in
doing
something good, while an accomplice helps another in a criminal act.
b. economical, frugal , thrifty, mean, miserly, stingy

He has been a very thrifty person all his life.


Don
?
t you expect a loan from such a miserly
man.
c. like , love, admire, adore, worship

He
is
a
nice
man
and
all
the
pupils
like
him.
The
pop
singer
is
especially
worshipped
by
teengers.
(4) Collocational synonyms-----some synonyms differ in their collocation.
搭配区别上的同义词：
在搭配上有区别的同义词

i.e.
in
the
words
they
to
together
with .
this
is
a
matter
of
usage
when
we
want
to
say
that
someone has done something wrong or even criminal, we can use
examples: a. accuse
…
of; charge
…
with; rebuke
…
for
b. the word we use to describe food that has gone bad and is not fit for eating:



rotten tomatoes, addled eggs, rancid bacon/butter, sour milk
(5) semantic synonyms----semantically different synonyms
语义上有差异的同义词

These are synonyms that differ slightly in what they mean.

Examples : a. the two words
“
amaze
”
and

“
astound
”
are very close in meaning to the word
“
surprise
”
,
but
they
have
subtle
differences .
”
Amaze
”

suggest confusion and bewilderment,
“
astound
”
suggests difficulty in believing. Amaze
：表示的是一种困惑，不解；

astound
：表示的
是难以置信的情感。

b.
“
escape
”
and

“
flee
”
both mean
“
to get away
”

escape: means to get away from something unpleasant or dangerous;
flee: means to get away hurriedly

5.3.2
Antonymy
反义关系


Oppositeness of meaning

Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions.
What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?

antonymy
反义词
------
The
term
“antonymy”
is
used
for
oppositions
of
meaning;
words
that
stand
opposite
in
meaning
are
called
“antonyms”, or
opposites
反义词是指那些在意义上既相互对立又相互联系的词。


Antonymy

fall
in there categories 1) gradable
antonyms
(e.g, good-bad); (2) complementary
antonyms (e.g., single-married); (3)
relational antonyms (e.g., buy-sell).
①
Gradable
antonymy
(mainly
adj.)
等级反
义关系
------member
of
this
kind
are
gradable.
Some
antonyms are gradable because they are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair,
so it is a matter of degree.
两个意义形成对立的等级，但在两级之间呈现着一定的梯度关系。

good/ bad(so-so/average)

long /short, narrow/ wide

big/small; fat/ thin; hot/cold( cool, warm ,
luke warm); old/young( middle-aged, mature, elderly)
They are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not
necessarily the assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.