tokyo是什么意思语言学重点

2021年1月19日发(作者：believe什么意思)
第一章

Chapter 1

Invitations to Linguistics
一

Design features of language

语言的结构特征

Design
features------
refers
to
the
defining
properties
of
human
language
that
distinguish
it
from
any
animal
system
of
communication.
They
are
arbitrariness,
duality,
creativity/
productivity,
displacement,
clutural
transmission and interchangeability.
Design
features-----
are
features
that
define
our
human
languages,such
as
arbitrariness,dualit y,creativity,displacement,cultural
transmissio n,etc
.
(
指决定了人类语言性质的特征
.
例如任意性
,
二重性
,
创造性
,
移位性
,
文化转移性等
.)
The American linguist Charles Hockett specified twelve design features.
What is arbitrariness?
任意性

a. arbitrariness
----

arbitrariness
(
任意性
)
: one design feature of human language,which refers to the fact that the
forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.(
人类语言的本质 特征之一
,
指语
言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系
.)

It was discussed by Saussure link between them is a matter of convention.



E.g. ―house‖




uchi (Japanese)


















Mansion (French)




















房子
(Chinese)
(1)
arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning
语言的音和义之间的任意性







a.

By ―arbitrary‖, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.
语言的意义和语音
之间没有逻辑关系。

A gog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a gig. Language therefore is
largely arbitrary.
b. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like
―bang ‖ ‖crash‖ ‖roar ‖ ‖ rumble ‖ ‖cakle‖, which are motivated in a certain sense.‖

onomatopoeia
拟声词
---words that sound like the sounds they describe
那些发音像它们的描写的声音的词

c. some compounds (words compounded to be one word ) are not entirely arbitary either. ―type ‖ and ‖write ‖are
opaque or unmotivated words, while ―type
-
writer‖ is less so, or more trans
parent or motivated than the words
that make it . so we can say ―arbitrariness‖ is a matter of degree.

arbitrary and onometopoeic effect may work at the same time.
任意性和拟声可以同时起作用。

Eg. The murmurous haunt of flies on summer eves.
夏日黄昏，群蝇嗡嗡地非。

(2)
Arbitrary at the syntactic level
句法上的非任意性

According to systematic- functionalists and American functionlists, language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.
对于系统功能语言学家和美国功能语言学家来说，语言在句法上是非任意的。

Syntax-----it refers to the ways that sentences are constructed according to the grammar of arrangement.
句法就
是依据语法安排造句之法。

(3)
Aribrtary and convention
任意性和约定性

The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of convention.
语言学上的符号和它的意义之间是约
定俗成的关系。

The other side of coin of arbitrariness , namely, conventionality.
任意性的相反面，即约定性。

conventionality----It
means
that
in
any
language
there
are
certain
sequences
of
sounds
that
have
a
conventionally accepted meaning. Those words are customarily used by all speakers with the same intended
meaning and understood by all listeners in the same way.
Arbitrainess
of
langauge
makes
it
potentially
creative,
and
conventionality
of
language
makes
learning
a
language laborious.
任意性赋予语言潜在的创造力，而语言的约定性又使学习语言变得费力。

There are two different schools of belief concerning arbitrariness. Most people, especially structural linguists
believe that language is arbitrary by nature. Other people, however, hold that language is iconic, that is, there is
a direct relation or correspondence between sound and meaning, such as onomatopoeia.(cuckoo; crash)
For the majority of animal signals, there does appear to be

a clear connection between the conveyed message
and the signal used to convey it, And for them, the sets of signals used in communication is finite.
b.

duality
(
二重性
)
:---
one
design
feature of
human
language,which
refers
to
the
property
of
having
two
levels of
structures , such as units of the primary level are composed of elements of the and each
of the two levels has its own principles of or ganization.(
人类语言的本质特征之一
,
指拥有两层结构的这种
特性
,
底层结构是上层结构的组成成分
,
每层都有自身的组合规则
. )

duality
----language
is
simultaneously
organized
at
two
levels
or
layers,
namely,
the
level
of
sounds
and
that
of
meaning.

the higher level ----words which are meaningful
the lower or the basic level----sounds which are meaningless, but can be grouped and regrouped into words.
To talk about duality we must notice that language is hierarchical.
说到语言的二重性，我们必须注意语言的等级
性。


c.
Creativity
----language is resourceful. It makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its
users.(novel utterances are continually being created.) non-human signals ,on the other hand, appears to have little
flexibility.

creativity(
创造性
): one design feature of human language ,by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of
its duality and its recursiveness.

(
指语言的能产性
,
因为语言有二重性和递归性
.)
productivity----productivity refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences
in one‘s native
language , including those that h
as never heard
before
, but that are appropriate to
the
speaking
situation.
人们能够利用语言中原有的规则来理解从未碰到过的语言符号的特征。

Different
from
artistic
creativity,
productivity
never
goes
outside
the
language,
thus
productivity
is
also
called
―rule
-
bound creativity‖ (by N. Cho
msky)

Productivity is unique to human language.
创造性是人类语言的独一无二的特征。

d.
displacement(
移位性
)
:
one design feature of human language,which means human language enable their users
to symbolize objects,events and concepts which are not present c in time and space,at the moment of
communica tion.(
指人类语言可以让使用者来表示在说话时
(
时间和处所
)
并不存在的物体
,
时间和观点
.)


Displacement , as one of the design features of the human languag, refers to the fact that one can talk about things
that are not present, as
easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real or
unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future.
人类语言可以被用来指不在当时当地发生
的事情，这就使得人类能够谈论许多事情而不受时空限 制。

Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speak, that means language
has the feature of displacement.
e.
Cultural transmission
----genetic transmission




You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes.
The
process
whereby
language
is
passed
on
from
one
generation
to
the
next
is
described
as
cultural
transmission.
This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the
linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the
capacity for language in human
be
ings
(N.
Chomsky
called
it
―language
acquisition
device‖,
or
LAD) has
a
genetic
basis,
but
the
particular
languag a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one lkie the dog‘s barking system.
（人
类学习语言的能力有 遗传基础，但任何详细的语言系统都必须通过教授和学习才能获得，这说明语言具有文化传
递性，它不是 靠人类的本能而获得的。
）


What featrues of human langauge have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different
from any animal communication system?
Arbitrainess ----a sign of sophistication only humans are capable of.
Duality----a feature totally lacking in any animal communication.
Creativity----animals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.
Displacement ----no animal can talk about things removed from the immediate situation.
Cultural transmission -----details of human language system are taught and learned while animals are born with the
capacity to send out certain signals as a means of limited communicaiton.
二
.
functions of language
语言的功能

1.


Jakobson
difined the six primary factors of any speech event, namely: speaker, addressee, context, message,
code, contact.
雅科布逊定义了言语行为的六个要素：说话者，受话者，语境，信息，语码，接触。

Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six




key

elements of communication, namely:

Referential funtion-
----to convey message and imformation
所指功能：传达信息

Poetic function


-----to indulge in language for its own sake
诗学功能：完全就语言而语言

Emotive function

----to express attitudes, feelings and emotions
感情功能：表达态度、感觉和感情

Conative function

----to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties








意动功能通过命令和恳求去说服和影响他人

Phatic function




----to establish communion with others
交感功能：与他人建议交流

Metalingual function -----to clear up intentions, words and meanings
元语言功能：弄清意图词语和意义


2
.Halliday
proposes a theory of metafunctions of language , that is, language has:
韩礼德提出语言元功能的理论，即
语言有：

Ideational function----constructs a model of experience and constructs logical relations;
概念功能：




建构了经验模型和逻辑关系

Interpersonal function-----enacts social relationships
人际功能：反映了社会关系

textual functions---- creates relevance to context.
语篇功能：创立了语言与语境的关系





Halliday proposed seven categories of language functions by observing child language development, that is ,
instrumental, regulatory, represnetational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.
他通过观察儿童语言的发
展提出了语 言的七种功能，他们是工具功能，控制功能，表达功能，交互功能，自指性功能，教导功能和想象功能。


Function(
功能
): the use of language to communicate,to
think ,gefunctions
inclucle
imformative
function,interpersonal
function,performative
function,
emotive
function,phatic
communion,recreational
function and metalingual function.(
用语言交流
,
思考等
.语言功能包括信息功能
,
人际功能
,
施为功能
,
感情功 能
,
寒暄功
能
,
娱乐性功能和元语言功能
.)

ding to Wang Gang (1988), langauge has three main functions:

a tool of communications,

a tool whereby people learn about the world;

a tool by which people creat art.

1.5.1 Informative function
信息功能

What is the informative function?
Langauge
serves
an
―informatvie
function‖
when
used
to
tell somethi
ng
,
characterized
by
the
use
of
declarative
sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true or false. According to P
. Grice‘s ―cooperative principle‖,
one ought not to violate the ―maxim of Quality‖, when he is informing at all.



Informative function is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.
在功能语法的框架
中，信息功能也被称为概念功能。

Halliday notes that ―langauge serves for the expression of ?content ‘‖: that is, of the speaker‘s experience of the real
world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.
韩礼德指出
―
语言为表达< br>?
内容
‘
服务：这个
?
内容
‘
就是说话者< br>的真实的经验世界，包括他自我意识的内部世界。
―

It requires some intellectual effort to see them in any other way than that which our language suggests to us. < br>它需要
人类的指挥从其他的不同角度看待事物，而不是按照语言提示给我们的那样去做。

1.5.2 Interpersonal function
人际功能

1.5.3 Performative function
施为功能

This means people speak to ―do things‖ or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is
more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge‘s imprisonm
ent sentence, the
president‘s war or independence declaration , etc, are perfomatives.

1.5.4 Emotive function
感情功能

1.5.5 Phatic communion
交感性谈话
(
寒暄功能
)
phatic
communion(
交感性谈话
)
:
one
function
of
human
language,which
refers
to
the
social
interaction
of
language.(
人类语言的功能之一
,
指语言的社会交互性
.)
broadly speaking, phatic funcion refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as
slangs, jokes, jargons, ritualistic exchanges, switches to social and regional dialect s.
概况地说，交感性功能是指那些
有助于说明，维持人际关系的表达，如俚语，玩笑，行业话 ，礼节性的交际，社会地域方言的转化等等。

The phatic function refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts
than for exchanging imformation or ideas. Greetings , farewells and comments on the weather in English and cloting
in Chinese all lserve this function. Much of the phatic langauge(eg, ―how are you?‖ ―fine, thanks.‖) is insincere if taken
literally, but it is important. If you don‘t say ―hello‖ to a friend you meet, or if you don‘t answer his ―hi ‖ , you ruin
your
friendship.
1.5.6
Recreational function
娱乐性功能

What is the evocative function?
什么是娱乐性功能？

The ―evocative function‖ is the use of language to creat certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to
amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or
entertain
the
listerner;
advertising
to
urge
customers
to
purchase
certain
commodities;
propaganda
to
influence
public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative

funtions often go together, i.e. you
may express, for
example, your personal feelings about a political issure but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on,
your listener. That‘s aslo the case with the other way round.

1.5.7 Metalingual function
元语言功能

metalanguage(
元语言
)
: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.
用以讲述或描述另一语言等的语言或一套符号。

三
Important distinctions in linguistics
1.9.1
Descriptive vs. prescriptive
描写式
”
和

“
规定式
”


prescriptive(
规定式
)
: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, down rules
for language use.(
规定事情应该是怎样的
.)
descriptive(
描写式
)
: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described.(
描述事情是怎样的
.)

What makes traditional grammar different from moden linguistics?
Modern linguistics started with the publication of

F. de Saussure’
s book ―Course in General Linguistics‖ in
the early 20
th

century. So Saussure is often described as ―
father of modern linguistics
‖.

The
general
approach
traditionally
formed
to
the
study
of
language
before
that
is
roughly
referred
to
as
―traditional grammar.‖ They differ in several basic ways:

Firstly, linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.
A linguist is interested in what
is said, not in what he thinks ought to be said. He describes language in all its aspects, but does not prescribe
rules of ―correctness‖.

Secondly,
modern
linguistics
regards
the
spoken
language
as
primary,
not
the
written.
Traditional
grammarians, on the other hand, tend to emphasize, may be over- emphasize, the importance of the written
word, partly because of

its permanence.
Then, modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar also in that it does

not force languages into
a
Latin-based
framework
.
To
modern
linguists
,it
is
unthinkable
to
judge
one
language
by
standards
of
another. They are trying to set up a universal framework, but that would be based on the features shared by
most of the languages used by mankind.
1.9.2

Synchronic vs. diachronic



―
共时
‖
和

―
历时
‖

synchronic(
共时的
)
:
a
kind
of
description
which
takes
a
fixed
instant(usually,but
not
necessarily,the
present),as its point of grammars are of this kind.(
共时的描写以一个固定的时间
(< br>通常
,
但非
必须是现在
)
为它的观察角度
,
大多数的语法书属于此类型
.)
.
diachronic(
历时的
)
:study of a language is carried through the course of its history.(
在语言的历史过程中研究
语言
.)

The
description
of
a
language
at
some
point
of
time
in
history
is
a
synchronic
study;
the
description
of
language as it changes through time is a
diachronic
study. A diachronic study is a historical study; it studies
the historical development of language over a period of time.
1.9.3

langue & parole “
语言
”
和

“
言语
”

langue(
语言
)
: the linguistic competence of the speaker.(
说话者的语言能力
.)

parole(
言语
)
: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics(utterances).(
语言的实际现象或语料
.)
The distinction was made by the Swiss linguist
Saussure
in the early 20
th
century.

Langue

refers
to
the
abstract
linguistic
system
shared
by
all
the
members
of
a
speech
community,
and
parole
refers to the realization of language in actual use, or the actual or actualized language.
语言是一个语
言社会的所有成员共同使用的抽象语 言系统。言语是对于这些抽象语言系统的实际运用。

What linguists should
do is to
abstract langue from parole, i. e. to
discover the
regularities
governing
the
actual use of language and make them the subjects of study of linguistics.
(1) Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation.
语言是抽象的，言语是具体的，是因人而异的。

(2) Langue not actually spoken by an individual , parole always a naturally occruing event.
(3)
Langue
relatively
stable
and
systematic,
parole
is
a
mass
of
confused
facts,
thus
nto
suitable
for
systematic investigation.
What a
linguist ought to do, according to
Saussure, is to
abstract langue from instances
of parole, i.e. to
discover
the
regularities
governing
all
instances
of
parole
and
make
than
the
subject
of
linguistics.
The
langue-parole distinction is of great important, which casts great influence on later linguists.
1.9.4
Competence and performance
语言能力和语言运用

competence(
语言能力
)
: a
language user‘s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.
(
一个语言使用者关
于语言系统规则的基本理解
.)

performance(
语言应用
)
: the actual use of language in concrete situations.(
指在具体场景中语言的真实使用
.)
The distinction is disc
ussed by

the American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950‘s.

According to N. Chomsky, ―compentence‖ is the ideal user‘s knowledge of the rules of his language
理想的语
言使用者的抽象语言知识
and
―performance‖
is
the
actual
realization
of
this
knowledge
in
utterance , in linguistic communication.
语言使用者在语言交际中对这种抽象语言知识的实际
运用。

How
is
Saussure‘s
distinction
between
langue
and
parole
similar
to
Chomsky‘s
distinction
between
competence and performance?
Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use
of language. Their purpose is to single out the language system for serious study.
How
is
Saussure‘s
distinction
between
langue
and
parole
differ
to
Chomsky‘s
distinction
between
competence and performance?
Chomsky’s competence
-performance distinction
is not exactly the same as , though similar to , F. de.
Saussure’s
langue
-parole
distinction.
Langue
is
a
social
product,
and
a
set
of
conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind
of
each
individual
.
Saussure
looks
at
language
more
from
a
sociological
or
sociolinguistics point of view than y since the latter deals
with his issures
psychologically or psycho linguistically.
索绪尔的理论与乔姆斯基的理论的不同之处
在于索绪尔是从语 言的社会学角度来谈论语言；而乔姆斯基是从语言的心理学角
度来谈论语言的。

consonant

1 Classification of English
consonants:


1

Manner of articulation
发音方式
:
The manner in which obstruction is created.

Stops
闭塞音
:



[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g].

Fricatives
摩擦音



: [f], [v], [s], [z], [θ], [σ
]
, [∫] [3], [h].


Affricates
塞擦音
:



[t∫],[d3]
church
中的

∫
]< br>和
jet
中的
[d
з
]
都是塞擦音

Approximant
无摩擦联系音




[w],[j] semi-vowels ,[r] [w,
λ
, j]
（为了印刷方便，
[
λ
]
常被表示成
[r])
。由于
[j]
和
[w]
常常被分析成元音，所以我们应该认识到这类音是和元音重合的。< br>




Lateral
边音








[l] [l]
是英语中唯一的边音。





Trill
颤音
[r]






一个重要的颤音是
[r]
，如部分苏格兰英语中的
red
和
rye

Nasals
鼻音
:






[m], [n], [η]


2

place of articulation
发音部位
:
The place where obstruction is created.

Bilabial
双唇音
:




[p], [b], [m], [w].

Labiodental
唇齿音
:


[f], [v]

Dental
齿音



: [θ], [σ
]

Alveolar
齿龈音


: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r]



Postalveolar
齿龈后音


[∫] [3]

Retroflex
卷舌音




如
red
中的

取决于口音，有很多说话者已经完全不用这 个音了


Palatal
硬腭音
:,



[j].
唯一的腭音是［
j]
，如
yes
和
yet

Velar
软腭音




: [k], [g], [η]




Uvular
小舌音



如

try
和
dry
中的
< br>，而在另外一些语言中这类音是标准音。




Pharyngeal
咽音


阿拉伯语有喉擦音
[h
，
f]
。


Glottal
声门音
: [h].
Manner of articulation, place of articulation and voicing/ voiceless help describe a consonant.
minimal pair
最小对立体
:
two different forms are identical in every way except one sound and occurs
in the same position. The two sounds are said to form a minimal pair. E.g.
bat
and
bet
are a minimal
pair.

Phoneme
音位

音位分析以这样一个原则为依据：一些语音会导致词的 意义的变化，而另一些语音则不会。有关这个专题的早期研究采用了一个简单的方
法来阐述这个原理，即 取一个词，用另外一个音代替其中的一个音，然后看是否会产生不同的意义。例如，英语词
tin
由三个单独的音组
成，每一个音在标音法中都可以用一个符号来表示，即
[tIn]
。如果我们用
[d]
代替
[t]
，就会产生一个新词：
din
。因为
[t]
和
[d]
能使我们区分
出
tin
和
din
，
tie
和
die
以及其他很多词，所以它们在英语 中是重要的语音。






同样，
[ i:]
和
[I]
也是重要的语音单位，因为它们区别了
beat
和< br>bit
，
bead
和

bid
以及其他许多词。这种 方法被称为

最小对立体

测
试法，可以用它找到那些会导致意义变化的 语音替代。此方法也有它的局限，它也不是总能够发现这样一些成对的能表明语言中精确的区
别的词。可 是对英语来说，它还是非常奏效的。在英语中，它区分了
40
多个重要的单位。





2.8.2
音位理论




虽然音位分析历史悠久，但第一个详尽的音位理论却是形成于
19
世纪
70
年代，由詹·伯顿·德·库尔德内（
Jan Baudouin de
Courtenay
）和他的学生米科莱·克鲁斯基（
Mikolaj Krusze wski
）在喀山提出。那时，已经有了法语
phon
è
me
一词， 意思为

语音

，
后来索绪尔和其他的法语写作者继续沿用这一意义。但 就描写语音系统的实用目的而言，

最小对立体

测试表明，音位是
外在的语音对
立单位

（
unit of explicit sound contrast
）：最小对立体的存在自动地赋予具有区别对立功能的语音以音位的地位，语言学系统 就是建
立在对立概念之上的，我们选择了这一个音而不是那一个，正是通过这个才得以区分不同的词。< br>





语言在选择对立音这一方面是不同的。 比如，英语中，送气音
[p(h)]
和不送气音
[p(=)]
之间的区别不是 音位性的，它们都属于同一个
音位
/p/
，只是在不同的位置条件下实现为不同的语音 。比较
peak
和
speak
，
peak
中的
/p /
是送气的，语音学上标成
/p(h)/
，而
speak
中
的
/p/
是不送气的，标成
/p(=)/
。然而，在汉语中，
/p( =)/
和
/p(h)/
的区别是音位性的，因此，

宾

和

拼

分别被标注成
/p(=)In/
（或者简写成
/pIn/
）和
/p(h)In/
。



2.8.
3
Allophones
音位变体





字典常常将词

peak
和
speak
分别标注成
/pi:k/
和
/spi:k/
，这种宽式的标音是音位性的， 因为它仅仅用音位来表示语音。然而，在实
际发音中，
/p/
在
peak中是送气的，而在
speak
中是不送气的。我们知道英语有一个规则就是，这个音在/s/
之后是不送气的，但在其他
位置是送气的。为标出

语音
< br>上的这种区别，将一个抬高的
/h/
加在音符后面表示送气音，
peak
的标音就是
[p(h)i:k]
，
speak
就是
[spi:k]
。
音位标音放在斜线括号（
//
）里而标音法放在方括号（
[]）里，就语音学来说，音位标音代表的是

宽式

标音。



上面的例子
[p
，
p(h)]
是两个不同的音素，它们是 音位
/p/
的变体。这种音位的变体叫做同一音位的音位变体。这里，我们认为音位变体
处在互补分布之中，它们从不出现在相同的环境中。这就是说
[p]
总是出现在
[s ]
之后，而
[p(h)]
总是出现在其他的条件之下。我们可以将这
条规则表 达成：（
1
）
/p/
→

[p] / [s]______ [p(h)]
其他


（注：

是
/p/
出现的环境）




这种在不同位置的音位的变体现象被称为音位变体现象。再如英语中的
/l/
。我们都知道它在
lead
和
deal
中的发音是不一样的。后者
在发音时，舌头向后面的硬腭稍稍卷曲（硬腭化），我们经常称之为

暗
l
，在 标音（或严式标音）时用符号
[l-]
表示。
lead
中的
[l]< br>被称为

明
l
，所以，语音学里，
lead
被标成[li:d]
，
deal
则为
[di:l-]
。这里的规则十分 简单，音位
/l/
在元音前发
[l]
音，在元音后发
[l-]
音。它们同
样是处于互补分布之中，可以写成：






[p, p(h)]
属于音位
/p/
，
[l, l-]< br>属于音位
/l/
，这样就减少了英语音位的数量
--4
个音只归入2
个音位。音位变体中当然也有其他例子






然而，并非所有处于互补分布中的音都是同一音位的变体，要将不同的音判属同一音位还有一 些限制条件：它们必须语音相近，并
且处于互补分布中。语音相近是说一个音位的音位变体语音上必须相 似，如
[l, l-]
都是边通音，它们只是在发音部位上有所差异；
[p, p(h)]
都是双唇清塞音，仅在是否送气这一点上有所不同，两对音都是处于互补分布之中。






除了互补分布之外，一个音位有时还可能有自由变体
free varirants
。 例如，
cup
的最后一个辅音可能不会被有些说话者发出，所以
这个词尾就是一个听不 见的音。这种情况下，同一个词发成两个不同的音：
[k(h)
Λ
p(h)]
和
[k(h)
Λ
p(
へ
)
（附加符号

へ< br>
表示国际音标中

无听觉感知的发音

）。这种差异可能来自方言 、习惯或者个人喜好，而与分布规律无关，此类现象就是

自由音位变体

。在地 区差异中
也可以见到这种自由变体，
如大部分美国人把

either
发成
[i:
σ
e]
，
可大多数英国 人却发成
［
aI
σ
e
］
，
个人差异有时决定了是将
direction
发成
[dIr
ε
k
∫
n]还是
[daIr
ε
k
∫
n]
。在字典里，自由变体经常 并列在一起，当然英国的字典通常将英国发音放在左边。

第三章

Chapter 3




Lexicon
词汇

语素和形态学






chairman
是由

chair
和

man
构成的，
townhall
是由

town
和

hall
构成的。
boys
、
checking
和
disappointment
也可以作进一步分析。
boys
由
boy
和
-s
组成，
checking
由
check
和
-ing
组成，
disappointment由
dis-
、
appoint
和
-ment
组成。这些更小的成分叫做语素
morpheme
。
但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。
chair
不能再分析成
ch
和
air
。
ch和
air
这两部分跟整体
chair
之间没有联系。所以，就表达和内容 之间的关系看
，
语素（
morpheme
）是最小
的语言单位，不能 再进一步分成更小的单位而不破坏或彻底改变词汇意义或语法意义。






直接涉及语素研究的语言学分支叫做形态学（
morphology）
，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规则。例如，英
语动词
purify
由两个部分组成：
pur
（
e
）和
-ify
，由此可以概括 出一条规则：形容词加上
-ify
可以造出一个新的动词。
这条形态学规则可以用来解 释一组以
-ify
结尾的动词的存在或形成，如
amplify
（放大，增强 ）
、
simplify
（简单化）
、
electrify
（ 使充电）
、
falsify
（伪造）
。这些动词的各个构成部分都是语素。< br>





3.2.2
语素的类型








（
1
）自由语素和粘着语素






根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类。能单独出现也就是能独自成词的，是自由语素（< br>free morpheme
）
。
例如
dog
（狗）
、
nation
（国家、民族）
、
close
（关闭）是自由语素。 换句话说，所有的单语素词都是自由语素。组成
成分都是自由语素的多语素词叫做复合词（
co mpound
）
，例如

paymaster
（发薪人员）
、
moonwalk
（
（作）月球行
走）
、
babysit
（照顾幼儿）
、
godfather
（教父）
、
sunfl ower
（向日葵）
。





与此相反，
dogs
中的
-s
、
national
中的
-al
、
disclose
（揭露）中的
dis-
不能单独 出现，它们必须跟至少一个其
他语素共现，这样的语素叫做粘着语素（
bound
m orpheme
）
。因此，
distempered
（不健全的，紊乱的）这 个词有
三个语素，就是
dis-
、
temper
、－
ed< br>。其中
temper
是个自由语素，

dis-
、
-ed
是粘着语素。







（
2
）词根、词缀和词干






除了复合词之外的多语素词，可以分出词根和词缀。






词根（
root
）是词的基本形式，不能再作进一步的分析而完 全不损失同一性
。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词
所剩下来的部分就是词根。
internationalism
（国际主义）这个词中，去掉
inter-
、
-al
、
-ism
之后，剩下来的就是词
根
nation< br>（国家）






所有的词都包含一个词根语素。





词缀（
affix
）是一个构词成分的集合，它们只能附加于另一个语素（词根或词干）上 。






语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根 据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分为三小类，就是前缀、后
缀和中缀。例如：

前缀

para-, mini-,un-

后缀

-ise, -tion
中缀

f(oo)t/ f(ee)t/, g(oo)se/ g(ee)se
这一分类跟前面的分类是有交叉的。词根可能是自由语素也可能是 粘着语素，但词缀都是粘着语素。自由词根语
素能独自出现，是词的基础形式，如

b lack
（黑色）
、
blackbird
（山鸟类）
、
bl ackboard
（黑板）
、
blacksmith
（铁匠）
中的< br>black
。语言中的这类语素在数量上的潜力是无限的。

可是英语中的粘着 词根语素，相对来说数量很少，如
receive
（收到）
、

perceive
（察觉）
、

conceive
（构思） 中的
-ceive
，
remit
（宽恕）
、

pe rmit
（许可）
、
commit
（犯
（错误）
）
、
submit
（使服从）
中的
-mit
，
retain< br>（保持）
、
contain
（包含）
、
maintain（维持）中的
-tain
，
incur
（招致）
、
re cur
（重现）
、
occur
（发生）中的
-cur
等。< br>





英语中有些词根既可以是自由的也可以 是粘着的。例如，
sleep
（
/sli:p/
）和

ch ild
（
/t
∫
aIld/
）都是自由词根语
素，
然而
sleep
的过去分词形式
slept
中的
slep-
和
child
的复数形式
children
中的
child-
都不能独自存在，
因此是粘
着的。






词干（
stem
）是指能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合
。friends
中的
friend-
、
friendships
中的
friendship-
都是词干。
friend-
表明词干可能相当于 词根，而
friendship-
表明词干可以包含词根和派生词缀。







（
3
）屈折词缀
inflectional affix
和派生词缀
derivational affix





屈折词缀和派生词缀的区别有时叫做屈折语素和派生语素的区别。可是 ，这一分类只能应用到词缀上。词根不能
再分成屈折词根和派生词根。






一般来说，屈折词缀的多产性表现在一个完整的范畴而不只是其中的一 组成员中。相反，根据我们一般熟悉的词
项的多少以及怎样用它们来产生，根据它们是否能用来生成新的 形式以及它们生成新形式有多自由，派生语素的多产
性是很广的。






例
3
－
13





recite recitation recital





cite citation * cital





revive * revivation revival





conserve conservation * conserval





deserve * deservation * deserval





虽然在当代英语词典中，我们找不到那些加星号的形式，但是某一天其 中一些形式是有可能为人们所使用的。






屈折词缀常常在词干后面添加一个微小的或微妙的语法意义
。例如，
toys
、walks
、
John's
等中的屈折词缀。相
反，
派生词缀常 常改变词汇意义
，如

cite
（引用）
、
citatio n
（条文）
；
generate
（产生）
、
generat ion
（一代人）
。






屈折词缀不改变原词的词类
，
如

flower
、
flowers
，
而
派生词缀可能改变原词的词类
，
如
< br>small
（
形容词，
小的）
、
smallness
（名词，小，小气）
，当然也可能不改变，如

brother
（名词，兄弟 ）
、
brotherhood
（名词，手足情谊，兄
弟关系）
。





通常，屈折词缀受到的限制是非语义性的 语言因素，这一因素在它们所依附的词之外，但是在短语或句子之内。
例如，
the boy likes to navigate on the internet
（这个男孩喜欢在因特网上航 行）中选择用
likes
，是由句子中的主
语
the
boy
决定的。而派生词缀更多的是根据简单的意义区别。例如，
clever
和
clev erness
之间的选择依赖于我们
是要谈论性质

聪明

（< br>clever
）还是要谈论处于聪明的状态（
clever- ness
）
。






英语 中的屈折词缀绝大部分是后缀，总是在单词的末尾（如
drums
，
walks
，
Mary's
）
。但是派生词缀可以是前
缀（如
compara ble, depart, online
）
，也可以是后缀（如
slaver
，

teacher
，

workable
）
。

.2
The formation of word
词的形成

3.2.1
Morpheme and Morphology
语素和形态学

The smallest components are known as morphemes. But they themselves cannot further analyzed.
最小的成
分叫语素。但是语素本身不能再作进一步分析。

Morpheme---- is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a
unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning,
whether it is lexical or grammatical.
(
就表达和内容之间的关系看,
语素是最小的语言单位
,
不能再进一步分成更小的
单位而不破坏或彻底 改变词汇一样或语法意义
.)
Morpheme: the minimal unit of meaning ,the basic unit in the study of morphology.
词素是形态学研究的最基
本的单位。



Morpheme is the smallest meaning-bearing unit of language.
词素是单词的最小的有意义的组成部分。

The
word”boxes”,
for
example,
has
two
morphemes:
“box”
and
”
-
es”,
neither
of
which
permits
further
division or analysis if we don’t wish to sacrifice meaning. Therefore, a morpheme is considered the minimal
unit of meaning.
Morphology---- is the immediate concern of

a branch of linguistics, which studies the internal structure of words and
the rules by which words are formed.
直接涉及语素 研究的语言学分支叫做形态学，研究词的内部结构以及词的构造规
则。

What is morphology?
什么是形态学？

Morphology is the branch of grammar that studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are
formed. It is generally divided into two fields: inflectional morphology, and lexical / derivational morphology.
Inflectional morphology studies the inflections and lexical / derivational morphology studies the
word- fromation.
形态学是语法学的一个分支，研究单词的内部结构和构词规则。形态学有两个分 支：曲折
形态学和词汇或派生形态学。曲折形态学研究语法曲折和语法意义的形态学；派生形态学研究单 词的构成
和词义的表达。


(3)The two fields
：




Inflectional morphology
曲折形态学
: the study of inflections



Derivational morphology:
派生形态学
the study of word-formation
3.2.2
Types of morphemes
morpheme

free:

free root


















bound


bound root



root






















affix






inflectional
































derivational



prefix






suffix
1.
free morpheme and bound morpheme
自由语素和粘着语素

Morphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occuring alone.
根据能否单独出现，可以
将语素分为两类。

free
morpheme(
自由语素
)
:-------Those
morphemes
which
may
occur
alone,
that
is
,
those
which
may
constitue
words by themselves, are free morphemes(
能单独出现
,
也 就是能独自成词的
,
叫做自由语素
.)
Free morphemes
: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves
bound morpheme(
粘着语素
)
: -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They must appear
with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(dogs
中的
-s, national
中的
-al, disclose
中的
dis-
不能单独出现
,
它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现
,
这样的语素叫做粘着语素
.)
Bound
morphemes:
morphemes

which
can
not
be
used
by
themselves,
but
must
be
combined
with
other
morphemes to form words
2.
root, affix and stem
词根，词缀和词干

（
1
）
root(
词根
)
: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity.

That is to
say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. (
词根是词的基本形式
,不能再作进一步的分析而完
全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词 根。
All words contain a root morpheme.
所有
的词都包含一个词根语素。

A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning it must
be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.
词根，粘着语素的一种，往往被 看作是一个单词的一个部
分。它本身有清楚，确定的意义，却不能被单独使用，而只能与另外一个词根结 合在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在
一起才能形成一个单词。

（
2
）
affix(
词缀
)
:
the
collective
term
for
the
type
of
formative
that
can
be
used
only
when
added
to
another
morpheme (the root or stem).(
词 缀是一个构词成分的集合
,
它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上
.)
Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix,
and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.
语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根
据它们跟词根或词干的 相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。

Prefix
前缀
----prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original
word.

dis-; un-; mis- para-; mini-
前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。

Exception: be-; en-; em-;

Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.
For example: little----belittle; large---enlarge; rich--- enrich; body---embody
Suffix
后缀
:-----suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the orginal word and in many
cases change its part of speech. -ly; -ness; -tion; -ise;
后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的意义，并且大所数情况
下改变词性。

Infix
中缀
:

foot/feet; goose/geese
–
oo-; -ee-

some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into
two parts.
tatawa


―a person who will laugh‖

tum
atawa


―a person who is laughing‖

ngitad






―dark‖

ngumitad




―to be dark‖

In this language, the infix
–
um- is inserted after the first consonant of a noun or adjective. (fikas-
―strong‖


f
umikas--
―to be strong‖

（
3
）
Stem(
词干
)
: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.(
词干是指
能加上屈折词缀的语素或语素的组合
.)
A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.
派生词缀可加在已存在的形式词上形成的一个
新词 ，原来存在的形式词被称为词干。词干可以是粘着词根，自由词素和一个派生词。

What is a root ? What is a stem? What is an affix?
A “root” is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. In other words, a
“root” is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. “Internationalism” i
s a four-morpheme derivative
which keeps its free morpheme “nation” as its root when “ inter
-
”, “
-
al” and “
-
ism” are taken away.

A “stem” is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an affix can be added. It may be the same as, and
in other cases,
different from, a root. For example, in the word “friends”, “friend” is both the root and the stem, but in
the word “friendships”, “friendships” is its stem, “friend” is its root. Some words (i. e., compounds ) have more than
one root ,e. g., “mailman” , “girlfriend” ,ect. An “affix” is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used,
only
when
added
to
another
morpheme(the
root
or
stem).
Affixes
are
limited
in
number
in
a
language,
and
are
generally
classified
into
three
subtypes:
prefix,
s
uffix
and
infix,
e.
g.
,
“mini
-
”,
“un
-
”,
ect.(prefix);
“
-
ise”,
“
-
tion”,
ect.(suffix).

3.
Inflectional affix and derivational affix
曲折词缀和派生词缀

Inflection/inflexion(
屈折变化
):------
the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional
affixes,such
as
number,person,finiteness,aspect and
case,which
do
not change the
grammatical class of the
stems
to
which
they
are
attached.(
屈折变化是 通过附加屈折词缀的语法关系的表现
,
如数
,
人称
,
有定性
,
体和格
,
屈
折词缀不会改变所附加词语的语法类
.)
Inflectional morpheme
: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical
categories such as number, tense, degree and case.

E.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest John
‘s

derivation(
派生词
):------the
manifestion
of
relation
between
stems
and
affixes
through
the
addition
of
derivational affixes.
Different from compounds,derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.(
通过增
加派生词素来表明词干与词缀关系的

构词法。跟复合词不同
,
派生词则能表明词根和词缀之间的关系
.)
Derivational morpheme
: a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words. There are three
kinds according to position in the new words, : prefix, suffix and infix.

3.3
Lexical change
词汇变化

3.3.1
Lexical change proper
特有的词汇变化

Major ways to create new words:

Compounding
: a process of combining two or more words into one lexical unit.
blackboard


godfather


baby-sit

cross-cultural
Invention
创新使用
: the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots or words.




e.g. finalize


widen


hospitalize

clockwise (
顺时针
)
Blending
混成法

: a process of forming a new word by combining parts of other words.
blending(
混成法
)
: a relatively complex form of compounding,in which two words are blended by joining the initial part
of the first word and the final part of the second word,or by joining the initial parts of the two wo rds.(
混成法
是一种相对复杂的混合形式
,
由两个单词混合而成
,
一般是一个单词的开头部分和第二个单词的最后部分连
接起来
,
或者是把两 个单词的开头部分连接起来
.)
transistor(transfer+resiste r)
晶
体
管
;
smog(smoke+fog)
烟
雾
;
positron(po sitive+electron)
正
电
子
;

boatel(boat+hotel)
水上旅馆；

brunch(breakfast+lunch)
早午餐；


smaze(smog+haze);
telecast(television+ broadcast)
电视广播

; motel (motor +hotel)
；


cremains(cremated+remains)
骨灰；

telex(teleprinter+exchange)
电报，电传打字机；

modem(modulator+demodulator)
调制解调器；

anacom(analog+computer)
分析计算机；


digicom(digital+computer)
数码计算机；

insulac(insulating++lacquer)
绝缘材料

Fusion
溶合法，混成法的一种
,eg. Stample(trample+stamp on); crackdown(crackup+breakdown)
Abbreviation
缩写词
:
a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form.








e.g. TV(television) Dr(doctor) hr(hour)

ft(foot or feet)
clipping
截断法
:
a kind of abbreviation of longer words or phrases
。
A new word is created by
A.
Cutting the final part (or with a slight variation)
截掉后面的部分（或有些小的变化）

memorandum ---memo

advertisement---ad;

bicycle----bike;


professor
—
prof


fantic-- fan
B.
Cutting the initial part
删去开头的部分

telephone---phone; omnibus
—
bus; helicopter
—
copter;

aeroplane---plane
C.
Cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly
删去开头和结尾相应的部分









e.g. electronic mail ---e-mail

high fidelity---hi-fi; influenza
—
flu; refrigerator---fridge
Acronym
缩略语
:
a word created by combining the initial letters of a number of words.

acronym(
缩略词
)
:
is
made
up
form
the
first
letters
of
the
name
of
an
organization,which
has
a
heavily
modified
headword.(
缩略词是由组织机构名称的首字母构成的< br>,
而这个组织机构的名称有多重修饰语
.)
e.g. UNESCO
联合国教科文组织；


APEC

Sars

CD


laser

radar (radio


detecting and ranging)
；

WB
世界银行


Initialism
: VOA

BBC

WTO

CIA



EEC
欧洲经济共同体；

Back- formation
逆构词法
:
a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word.
back- formation(
逆构词法
)
:
an
abnormal
type
of
word-formation
where
a
shorter
word
is
derived
by
deleting
an
imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.(
构词法中一种不规则 的类型
,
即把一个语言中已经
存在的较长单词删去想象中的词缀
,
由 此造出一个较短的单词
.)








televise (from television) donate (from donation) enthuse (from enthusiasm)
Analogical creation
类推构词

Borrowing
借词
: the taking over of words from other languages


A.
loanword(
借词
)
: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with only a slightly adaptation,in
some cases,to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.(
借词的形式和意义都是借用的
,
有时为
了适应新语言的音位系 统
,
可以有些细小的改变
.)
B.
.loanblend(
混合借词
)
: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully
borrowed.(< br>指借词的一部分来自本国语
,
另一部分来自外来语
,
但是意义全都是借 来的
.)
C.
loanshift(
转移借词
)
: a process in which the meaning is borrowed,but the form is native.(
转移借词的意义是借用
的
,
但是形式是来 自本国语
.)
D. Loan translation(
翻译借词
): a special type of borrowing, in which each morphemeor word is translated in the
equivalent morpheme or word in another languag e.(
翻译借词是一种特殊的借用
,
每个语素或单词都是从另一种语言中
的语 素或单词对等地翻译过来的
.)

Calque
仿造词

Coinage :
the invention of a new word

第五章

Chapter 5


Meaning
意义


5.3 Major Sense relations
涵义关系

Words are in different sense relations with each other
There are generally 3 kinds of sense relations: sameness relation, oppositeness relation and inclusiveness relation
一般来说有三种公认的涵义关系：即相同关系，对立关系和内包关系。

5.3.1.
synonymy
同义关系

1. Sameness or close similarity of meaning.
Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.
synonymy
: is the technical name for the sameness relation.
同义关系：相同关系的专业术语

synonymy
同义词
----synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words
that are close in meaning.
指意义相同或相近的词。

2. What is synonymy?

―Synonymy‖ is used to mean sameness or close similarity of meaning. Dictionary makers (lexicographers) rely on
the
existence
of
synonymy
for
their
definitions.
Some
semanticians
maintain,
however,
that
there
are
no
real
synonyms,
because
two
or
more
words
named
synonyms
are
expected
without
exception
to
differ
from
one
another in one of the following aspects: In shades of meaning (e.g., finish, complete, close, conclude, terminate,
finalize, end, etc.); In stylistic meaning; In emotive meaning (or affective meaning); In range of use (or collocative
meaning); In British and American English usages [e.g., autumn (BrE), fall (AmE)].
Simeon Potter said,― Language
is like dress. We vary our dress to suit the occasion. We do not appear at a friend‘s silver
-wedding anniversary in
gardening clothes, nor do we go punting on the river in a dinner-
jacket.‖ This means the learning of synonyms
is
important to anyone that wishes to use his language freely and well.
5.3.2
Antonymy
反义关系


Oppositeness of meaning

Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms.

What is Antonymy? How many kinds of antonyms are there?

antonymy
反义词
------
The term “antonymy” is used for oppositions of meaning; words that stand opposite in meaning
are called “antonyms”, or opposites
反义词是指那些在意义上既相互对立又相互联系的词。


Antonymy

fall
in
there
categories
1)
gradable
antonyms
(e.g,
good-bad);
(2)
complementary
antonyms
(e.g.,
single-married); (3) relational antonyms (e.g., buy-sell).
①
Gradable antonymy (mainly adj.)
等级反义关系
------member of this kind are gradable. Some antonyms are gradable
because they are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, so it is a matter of degree.
两个意义形
成对立的等级，但在两级之间呈现着一定的梯度关系。

good/
bad(so-so/average)

long
/short,
narrow/
wide

big/small;
fat/
thin;
hot/cold(
cool,
warm
,
luke
warm);
old/young( middle-aged, mature, elderly)
They are gradable. That is, the members of a pair differ in terms of degree. The denial of one is not necessarily the
assertion of the other. There are often intermediate forms between them.
②
complentary antonymy
:
互补反义关系
------- members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to
each field completely,
成员彼此互补

alive/
dead,

male/
female,

present/
absent,
pass/
fail
,
boy/
girl
up/down

married/single


innocent/guilty


odd/even


hit/miss



It is characterized by the feature that the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other and the
assertion of one means the denial of the other.
In other words, it is not a matter of degree between two extremes, but a matter of either one or the other.
中间不存在
过渡性

③

converse antonymy
反向反义关系
-------
:
a
special
kind
of
antonymy
in
that
memembers
of
a
pair
do
not
constitute a positive-negative opposition,such as buy;sell,lend,borrow,above,belo w,etc.
反义关系的一种特殊类型，因
为对中成员并不一定构成肯定否定的对立。

:converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles,kinship relations,temporal and spatial are always two
entities presupposes the other. The shorter,better; are instances of relational op posites.
关系
对立：反向反义关系典型地表现在相互社会角色亲属关系，时间和空间等 方面，它总是涉及两个实体，一个预设了另
一个。

buy/ sell,

lend/ borrow, before /after, teacher/ student,

above /below
5.3 .3

Hyponymy
( a matter of class membership)
上下义关系：
一种和成员之间的关系

the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific words .
cow/ animal,

rose/ flower, honesty/ v irtue
上下义关系实际是指两词意义之间的关系分别表示的是逻辑上的属的概念
与种的概念 。

1. hyponymy
:----- a relation between two words,in which the meaning of one word(the superordinate)is included in
the meaning of another word(the hyponym).
2. Superordinate
上坐标词
: the upper term in hyponymy, class name.A superordinate usually has several
hyponyms.
These
members
of
the
same
class
are
co- hyponyms.
Under
animal,for
example,there
are
cats,dogs,pigs,etc,the word which is more general in meaning.
位于上下义关系上位的词语，即类名。一个上坐标词通
常有很多下义词。同类中的成员叫做同下义词。

3.
hyponyms
下义词
------the lower terms in hyponymy
居于下位的是成员，叫做下义词。

T
he word which is more general in meaning is called the superordinate, and the more specific word are called its
hyponyms.
Hyponyms of the same super-ordinate are co-hyponyms to each other.
Examples: superordinate: furniture


Hyponyms : bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, setee,
……

Auto- hyponym:
自我下义词

5.4
Componential analysis

成分分析

“Componential analysis”
---- defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.

Componential
analysis
refers
to
an
approach
adopted
by
structural
semanticists
in
describing
the
meaning
of
words or phrases. This approach is based on the belief that the total meaning of a word

can be analyzed in terms of
a number of distinct elements or meaning components (called semantic features)
成分分析法：是一种分析词汇抽象意
义的方法。根据音 系学中的区别特征，一些语言学家建议也应设语义特征、或叫语义成分。也就是说，词义并非不可
分析的 整体，它可看作是一个不同语义特征的复合体，有比词义更小的语义单位。例如，单词
boy
（ 男孩）的意义可分
析为三部分：
HUMAN
（人）
，
YOUNG（年轻）
，
MALE
（男性）
。类似地，
girl
（女 孩）可分析为
HUMAN
，
YOUNG
，
FEMALE
（女 性）
；
man
（男人）可分析为

HUMAN
，
A DULT
（成年）
，
MALE
；
woman
（女人）可分析 为

HUMAN
，
ADULT
，
FEMALE
。






为了经济，我们可以把一些语义成分合并起来。 语义成分
YOUNG
和
ADULT
可以合并为
ADULT
， 把
YOUNG
表示成～
ADULT
；
MALE
和
F EMALE
可以合并成
MALE
，把
FEMALE
表示成～
MALE
。






像
fa ther
（父亲）
，
mother
（母亲）
，
son
（儿子）和
daughter
（女儿）这样包含了一种两实体间关系的词，可表
示如 下：






father = PARENT (x, y) & MALE (x) (
父亲

=
父母

(x, y) &
男性

(x))





mother = PARENT (x, y) &
～

MALE (x)





(
母亲

=
父母

(x, y) &
～

男性

(x))





son = CHILD (x, y) & MALE (x)





(
儿子

=
孩子

(x, y) &
男性

(x))





daughter = CHILD (x, y))&
～

MALE(x)





(
女儿

=
孩子

(x, y) &
～

男性
(x))





动词也可以用这种方式来分析，如：






take = CAUSE (x,(HAVE (x, y)))





(
取

=
致使

(x,(
拥有

(x, y))))





give = CAUSE (x,(
～

HAVE (x, y)))





(
给

=
致使

(x, (
～

拥有

(x, y))))





die = BECOME (x, (
～

ALIVE (x)))





(
死

=
变得

(x, (
～

活着的
(x))))





kill = CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y,
～

ALIVE (y))))





(
杀死

=
致使

(x, (
变得

(y,
～

活着的
(y)))))





murder = INTEND (x, (CAUSE (x, (BECOME (y, (
～
ALIVE (y)))))))





(
谋杀

=
故意，
(x, (
致使

(x, (
变得

(y, (
～

活着的
(y))))))))

用这种方式展示词的语义成分，
据称可以更好地说明涵义关系。
两个有相同语义成分的词或表达 式将是彼此同义的。
如，
bachelor
（单身汉）和

unmarried man
（未婚男士）都有语义成分
HUMAN
，
ADULT
，
MALE
和
UNMARRIED
，
因而它们 是同义的。另一方面，有相反语义成分的词是反义词，如
man
（男人）和
woman
（女人）
，
boy
（男孩）和
girl
（女孩）
，
give
（给）和
take
（拿）
。有另一个词的所有语义组成成分 的词是该词的下义词，如
boy
和
girl
是
child
的
下义词，因为它们有
child
的所有语义组成成分、即
HUMAN
和～
ADULT
。语义成分也可以解释句子之间的意义关系。
例（
a
）
，
（
b
）和（
c
）都是自相矛盾的，因为句中单词或表达 式含有相矛盾的语义成分：






a. * John killed Bill but Bill didn't die.
（约翰杀死了比尔但是比尔没有死。
）






b. * John killed Bill but he was not the cause of Bill's death.
（约翰杀死了比尔但他不是导致比尔死的原因）






c. * John murdered Bill without intending to
．
（约翰谋杀了比尔，他不是故意的。
）






但是句子之间一个更重要的意义关系是衍推关系，如







2. a. John killed Bill
．
（约翰杀死了比尔。
）






b. Bill died
．
（比尔死了。
）






3. a. I saw a boy.
（我看见一个男孩。
）






b. I saw a child.
（我看见一个小孩。
）






4. a. John is a bachelor
．
（约翰是个单身汉。
）






b. John is unmarried.
（约翰没有结婚。
）




每对的两句之间有如下关系：
a
真则
b
必真，
b
假则a
也假。
用语义成分理论，
我们可以说句
（
a
）
中的词含有句
（
b
）
词语的所有语义成分。






用语义成分来分析词语意义的方法也有它的困难。一是很多词语是多义 的，它们有不止一个意义，因而将有不同
的几套语义成分。
单词

就是这样，< br>通常认为它有
MALE
这一语义成分，
但它也可用在类属意义上，
如< br>Man is mortal
（人终有一死）就适用于两性。






困难之二，人们用二分分类学来看一些语义成分，如

MALE
（男性）和
FEMALE
（女性）
、
ADULT
（成年）和
YOUNG
（未成年）
。但正如我们上面反义关系部分已经指出的，
MALE
、
FEMALE
的对立不同于
ADULT
和
YO UNG
，
前者是绝对的而后者是相对的。
在英语中，
虽然
boy和
girl
都标记为
YOUNG
或～
ADULT
，但
boy
和
man
之间的区别
远不同于
girl
和
woman
。前一对词之间的区分通常相对比较鲜明而后两词的不同则相当模糊。
girl
和
woman
之间有相
当大的交集，
一个女人经常可以同时 用这两个词来指称。

困难之三，
我们上面看过的例子只是词汇中组织整齐的部分。< br>可能有一些单词语义成分难以确定，于是就有这样的问题：即它们是否普遍，每种语言的词汇是否都可以用 这种方法
来分析。
即使这些问题的答案是肯定的，
仍然有语义成分本身如何解释的问题 。
按照现在的情况，
语义成分像
HUMAN
，
ADULT
，
MALE
不再是英语中的普通单词，而属于元语言
--
一种用来谈论其他语言 的工具语言。用语义成分解释
man
意义的尝试只是从英语到元语言的一种翻译；对于不懂元语 言的人来说，这种翻译是无效的。


第七章

















chapter 7 language, culture, and socitey
语言，文化和社会

7
.1
Language and culture
语言和文化

7
.
Sapir-Whorf hypotheses
萨坯尔
-
沃尔夫假说
我们的语言塑造了我们的思维模式，相应地，不同
的语言表达决定了我们认 识世界的不同方式

linguistic determinism: It refers to the idea that the language we use, to some extent, determines
wholly
the way in
which we view and think about the world around us.-----strong version
.linguistic relativity : A belief that the way people view the world is determined
partly
by the structure of their native
language, which is also called Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis .------weak version.

．
linguistic relativity
语言相对性
----
: one of the two points in Spir-
Whorf hypotheis,‘s no limit to the structural
diversity of languages.
.
linguistic
determinism
语言决定论
:----
one
of
the
two
points
in
Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis,ge
determines
thought.
On
the
one
hand,
language
may
determine
our
thinking
patterns;
on
the
other,
similarity
between
languages
is
relative, the greater their structural differentiation is, the more diverse their conceptualization of the world will be. For
this reason, this hypothesis has alternatively been referred to as languistic determinism and linguistic relativity-----a
view which
―
was first expounded by the German ethnologist, Wilhelm von Humboldt
‖
.
一方 面语言可以决定我们的思
维方式；另一方面，语言之间的相似性是相对的，结构差异越大，所反映的对世 界的认识越不同。因此这个假说也被
称作“语言决定论”和“语言相对主义”。实际上，这种看法“最早 由德国民族学家洪堡特详加阐释”

8. if we want to do a good job in Crosscultural Communication
（
Eugene Nida
）
, there are five types of sub-culture we
shoud be fully aware of :
如果想出色地完成跨文化交际工作，需要充分认识五种次文化形式：

Ecological culture
生态文化

Linguistic culture
语言文化


Religious culture
宗教文化

Material culture
物质文化



Social culture
社会文化

7.1.2 More about t
he Sapir- Whorf hypothesis
萨坯尔
-
沃尔夫假说

1. The stong version of the theory
强式说

-----refers to the claim the original hypothesis suggests, emphasiziing the
decisive role of language as the shaper of our thinking pat terns.
指的是这一理论的初始假说，即强调语言在塑造我们
的思维方式过程中起到了决定 性的作用。

2.
The
weak
version
of
the
theory
弱式说
-----is
modified
type
of
its
original
theory
,
suggesting
that
there
is
a
correlation between language, culture, and thought, but the cross-culture differences thus produced in our way of
thinking are relatives, rather than categorica l.
是初始假说的修正形式，即认为语言、文化和思维之间有相关性，但是
产生不同思维方式的 跨文化差异只是相对的，而不是绝对的。

第八章

Chapter 8



Language in Use
语言的使用



8.1.2
行事行为（
illocutionary act
）理论







在《怎样用词做事》
（
How to Do Things with Words< br>）后面的部分，奥斯汀尝试从一种新的角度来解决这个问题，
讨论在什么意义上说话就是做事。< br>





根据他的观点，说话可以在三种意义上 被看成做事。第一种是普通意义。那就是，我们说话的时候，要移动发音
器官，发出按照一定方式组织起 来，并被赋予了一定意义的声音。在这个意义上，当有人说

！

时，我们可以< br>问：

他做了什么？

，而不问

他说了什么？
< br>。答案可以是他发出了一个声音，单词或者句子
--
。这种意义上
的行为叫作发 话行为（
locutionary act
）
。然而，奥斯汀认为在发话行为中还有一 种行为，

在实施发话行为的时候，我们
同时也在实施另一种行为，例如：提出或回答问 题，提供信息、保证或警告，宣告裁定或意图，公布判决或任命，提
出申诉或批评，作出辩认或描述，等 等

。
（
1962
：
98
－
99
） 例如，当有人说

！

时，另一个人问

他做了什么？
< br>我们完全可以回答：

他表示了问候。






换句话说，我们说话时，不只是说出一些具有一定意义的语言单位，而且说明我们的说话目的 ，我们希望怎样被
理解，也就是奥斯汀说的具有一定的语力（
force
）
。 在上面的例子中，我们可以说

！

有问候的语力，或者说，
它应该被理 解成问候。这是说话可以是做事的第二种意义，这种行为叫行事行为。奥斯汀承认语力（
force）可以被看
成意义（
meaning
）的一部分，这时的意义是广义的。就我们刚 才讨论的例子，我们也可以说

他的意思是问候

。在本
章开头的那个反 问句

？（你什么意思）

中，
mean
也是广义的。但是奥斯 汀主张还是把语力（
force
）
与意义（
meaning
）区分开 ，后者只用作狭义；只指较稳定的固有的意义。语力（
force
）
，或者叫行事语力 （
illocutionary
force
）
，相当于说话者意义、语境意 义或附加意义，可以译成汉语的

言外之意

。不过
illocutio nary act
不能翻译成

言外
行为

，因为前缀
-il
的意思是

在??里面

，而不是否定。