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2021-01-19 09:59
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2021年1月19日发(作者:混响英文)
TPO-40
Ancient Athens
One of the most important changes in Greece during the period from 800 B.C. to 500 B.C.
was the rise of the polis, or city-state, and each polis developed a system of government that was
appropriate
to
its
circumstances.
The
problems
that
were
faced
and
solved
in
Athens
were
the
sharing of political power between the established aristocracy and the emerging other classes, and
the
adjustment
of
aristocratic
ways
of
life
to
the
ways
of
life
of
the
new
polis.
It
was
the
harmonious blending of all of these elements that was to produce the classical culture of Athens.

Entering the polis age, Athens had the traditional institutions of other Greek protodemocratic
states: an assembly of adult males, an aristocratic council, and annually elected officials. Within
this traditional framework the Athenians, between 600 B.C. and 450 B. C., evolved what Greeks
regarded as a fully fledged democratic constitution, though the right to vote was given to fewer
groups of people than is seen in modem times.

The
first
steps
toward
change
were
taken
by
Solon
in
594
B.
C.,
when
he
broke
the
aristocracy's stranglehold on elected offices by establishing wealth rather than birth as the basis of
office holding, abolishing the economic obligations of ordinary Athenians to the aristocracy, and
allowing
the
assembly
(of
which
all
citizens
were
equal
members)
to
overrule
the
decisions
of
local courts in certain cases. The strength of the Athenian aristocracy was further weakened during
the rest of the century by therise of a type of government known as a tyranny, which is a form of
interim rule by a popular strongman (not rule by a ruthless dictator as the modern use of the term
suggests to us). The Peisistratids, as the succession of tyrants were called (after the founder of the
dynasty,
Peisistratos),
strengthened
Athenian
central
administration
at
the
expense
of
the
aristocracy by appointing judges throughout the region, producing Athens’ first national coinage,
and adding and embellishing festivals that tended to focus attention on Athens rather than on local
villages of the surrounding region. By the end of the century, the time was ripe for more change:
the tyrants were driven out, and in 508 B C a new reformer, Cleisthenes, gave final form to the
developments reducing aristocratic control already under way.

Cleisthenes' principal contribution to the creation of democracy at Athens was to complete
the long process of weakening family and clan structures, especially among the aristocrats, and to
set in their place locality-based corporations called demes, which became the point of entry for all
civic
and
most
religious
life
in
Athens.
Out
of
the
demes
were
created
10
artificial
tribes
of
roughly equal population. From the demes, by either election or selection, came 500 members of a
new
council,
6,000
jurors
for
the
courts,
10
generals,
and
hundreds
of
commissioners.
The
assembly was sovereign in
all
matters but in practice delegated its power to subordinate bodies
such
as
the
council,
which
prepared
the
agenda
for
the
meetings
of
the
assembly,
and
courts,
which
took
care
of
most
judicial
matters.
Various
committees
acted
as
an
executive
branch,
implementing policies of the assembly and supervising, for instance, the food and water supplies
and
public
buildings.
This
wide-scale
participation
by
the
citizenry
in
the
government
distinguished the democratic form of the Athenian polis from other, less liberal forms.

The
effect
of
Cleisthenes’
reforms
was
to
establish
the
superiority
of
the
Athenian
community
as
a
whole
over
local
institutions
without
destroying
them.
National
politics
rather
than local or deme politics became the focal point. At the same time, entry into national politics
began
at
the
deme
level
and
gave
local
loyalty
a
new
focus:
Athens
itself.
Over
the
next
two
centuries the implications of Cleisthenes’ reforms were fully
exploited.

During the fifth century B. C. the council of 500 was extremely influential in shaping policy.

In
the
next
century,
however,
it
was
the
mature
assembly
that
took
on
decision
-making
responsibility. ■By any measure other than that of the aristocrats, who had been upstaged by the
supposedly inferior
since,
have
so
many
people
been
involved
in
the
serious
business
of
self-
governance.
■It
was
precisely
this
opportunity
to
participate
in
public
life
that
provided
a
stimulus
for
the
brilliant
unfolding of classical Greek culture. ■








P1

One of the most important changes in Greece during the period from 800 B.C. to 500 B.C.
was the rise of the polis, or city-state, and each polis developed a system of government that was
appropriate
to
its
circumstances.
The
problems
that
were
faced
and
solved
in
Athens
were
the
sharing of political power between the established aristocracy and the emerging other classes, and
the
adjustment
of
aristocratic
ways
of
life
to
the
ways
of
life
of
the
new
polis.
It
was
the
harmonious blending of all of these elements that was to produce the classical culture of Athens.

1. Paragraph 1 supports which of the following statements about the Greek city- states?
A. Most city-states followed the model provided by Athens.
B. Most city-states were based on aristocratic rule.
C. Different types of government and organization were used by different city- states.
D. By 500 B C. the city-states were no longer powerful.

P2

Entering
the
polis
age,
Athens
had
the
traditional
institutions
of
other
Greek
protodemocratic states: an assembly of adult males, an aristocratic council, and annually elected
officials.
Within
this
traditional
framework
the
Athenians,
between
600
B.C.
and
450
B.
C.,
evolved what Greeks regarded as a fully fledged democratic constitution, though the right to vote
was given to fewer groups of people than is seen in modem times.

2. According to paragraph 2, Athens had all of the following before becoming a city- state
EXCEPT
A. a council made up of aristocrats
B. an assembly made up of men
C. a constitution that was fully democratic
D. officials who were elected yearly

P3

The
first
steps
toward
change
were
taken
by
Solon
in
594
B.
C.,
when
he
broke
the
aristocracy's stranglehold on elected offices by establishing wealth rather than birth as the basis of
office holding, abolishing the economics of ordinary Athenians to the aristocracy, and allowing
the assembly (of which all citizens were equal members) to overrule the decisions of local courts
in certain cases. The strength of the Athenian aristocracy was further weakened during the rest of
the century by therise of a type of government known as a tyranny, which is a form of interim rule
by a popular strongman (not rule by a ruthless dictator as the modern use of the term suggests to
us). The Peisistratids, as the succession of tyrants were called (after the founder of the dynasty,
Peisistratos),
strengthened
Athenian
central
administration
at
the
expense
of
the
aristocracy
by
appointing judges throughout the region, producing Athens’ first national coinage, and adding and
embellishing festivals that tended to focus attention on Athens rather than on local villages of the
surrounding region. By the end of the century, the time was ripe for more change: the tyrants were
driven
out,
and
in
508
B
C
a
new
reformer,
Cleisthenes,
gave
final
form
to
the
developments
reducing aristocratic control already under way.

3. According to paragraph 3, an important effect of making wealth the basis of office holding was
to

A. make fewer people qualified to be members of the assembly
B. make it possible for non-aristocrats to hold office
C. help the aristocrats maintain power
D. Increase economic opportunities for all Athenian citizens

4. The word “
abolishing
” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. limiting
B. eliminating
C. revising
D. supervising

5. In paragraph 3, the author's explanati
on of the word “
tyranny
” indicates that

A. most Athenians were opposed to rule by the Peisistratids
B. the word had a somewhat different meaning for the Athenians than it does for people today
C. the tyrants were supported by the aristocracy
D. the word can be applied only to ruthless dictators

6. According to paragraph 3, all of the following were true of the Peisistratids' rule EXCEPT:
A. A national system of coins was created.
B. Judges were appointed across the region.
C. New festivals were added.
D. Increased attention was focused on local villages.

7. The word “
embellishing
” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. making more attractive
B. providing support for
C. duplicating
D. controlling

8. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out
essential information.
A. Cleisthenes, a reformer who recognized that aristocratic control had been decreasing since the
end of the previous century, finally drove the tyrants out of Athens in 508 B. C.
B. The tyrants were driven out, and in 508 B.C. Cleisthenes put in place the structures that
completed the weakening of the aristocracy.
C. By driving out the tyrants, Cleisthenes enabled the reforms that had been under way since the
end of the century to reach their final form in 508 B. C.
D. Toward the end of the century, the tyrants were driven out, and in 508 B. C. Cleisthenes saw
that it was time to change the structures that had reduced aristocratic control

P4

Cleisthenes' principal contribution to the creation of democracy at Athens was to complete the
long process of weakening family and clan structures, especially among the aristocrats, and to set
in their place locality-based corporations called demes, which became the point of entry for all
civic and most religious life in Athens. Out of the demes were created 10 artificial tribes of
roughly equal population. From the demes, by either election or selection, came 500 members of a
new council, 6,000 jurors for the courts, 10 generals, and hundreds of commissioners. The
assembly was sovereign in all matters but in practice delegated its power to subordinate bodies
such as the council, which prepared the agenda for the meetings of the assembly, and courts,
which took care of most judicial matters. Various committees acted as an executive branch,
implementing policies of the assembly and supervising, for instance, the food and water supplies
and public buildings. This wide-scale participation by the citizenry in the government
distinguished the democratic form of the Athenian polis from other, less liberal forms.
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9. According to paragraph 4, one effect of making the demes the point of entry for civic life was to
A. ensure that every region had the same number of commissioners
B. distribute the population more equally throughout the Athens region
C. limit the number of aristocratic clans
D. reduce the importance of family connections

10. According to paragraph 4, one role of the new council was to
A. determine what issues came before the assembly
B. prepare the agenda for the courts
C. carry out the assembly’s policies

D. oversee the distribution of food and water

P5

The
effect
of
Cleisthenes’
reforms
was
to
establish
the
superiority
of
the
Athenian
community
as
a
whole
over
local
institutions
without
destroying
them.
National
politics
rather
than local or deme politics became the focal point. At the same time, entry into national politics
began
at
the
deme
level
and
gave
local
loyalty
a
new
focus:
Athens
itself.
Over
the
next
two
centuries the implications of Cleisthenes’ reforms were fully
exploited.

11. The word “
exploited
” in the pass
age is closest in meaning to
A. separated
B. understood
C. utilized
D. exported
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12. The word “
stunning
” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. popular
B. universal
C. impressive
D. Continuing

During the fifth century B. C. the council of 500 was extremely influential in shaping policy.

In
the
next
century,
however,
it
was
the
mature
assembly
that
took
on
decision
-making
responsibility. ■By any
measure other than that of the aristocrats, who had been upstaged by the
supposedly inferior
since,
have
so
many
people
been
involved
in
the
serious
business
of
self-
governance.
■It

was
precisely
this
opportunity
to
participate
in
public
life
that
provided
a
stimulus
for
the
brilliant
unfolding of classical Greek culture. ■


13. Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the
passage.
Indeed, at the height of Athenian democracy there was no government separate from its
citizenry.
Where does the sentence best fit?

14.
Directions
: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below.
Complete the summary by selected THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas
in the passage. Some sentences do not belong in the summary because they express ideas that are
not presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage.
This question is worth 2 points.

Between 600 B.C. and 450 B.C., Athens changed the distribution of political power between
the aristocracy and ordinary citizens.
?


?


?


Answer Choices
A. The rise of the city- state put enormous pressure on the aristocracy to change its traditional way
of life to make it appear more in harmony with the values of classical Athenian culture.
B. The aristocrats staged elaborate festivals that focused attention on Athens instead of the
surrounding villages.
C. Cleisthenes' reforms reduced aristocratic power by reorganizing the citizen body and changing
the entry points to civic life so that political power did not rely on traditional family and clan
structures.
D. The aristocracy’s monopoly on political power ended with Solon’s reforms, and its political
influence was further eroded by the centralization of administration under the tyrants.
E. Cleisthenes gave each tribe an equal number of council members, jurors, generals, and
commissioners.
F. Over time, as the all-citizen assembly took on more and more of the actual exercise of political
power, ordinary citizens participated in public life more fully than ever before.


参考答案:
1-5: C C B B B




6-10: D A B D A



11-14: C C C

CDF
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参考译文:
古雅典

从公元前
80 0
年到公元前
500
年,
希腊最重要的变化之一是城邦的兴起,
或者 说城市的
兴起。
每个城邦也都形成了适合自身情况的政府制度。
已存在的雅典贵族和新 兴的其他阶层
之间的政治权力分享,
以及贵族们为适应新的城邦生活所做的调整,
这些 就是当时雅典所面
对并解决了的问题。所有这些元素的和谐融合,造就了雅典的古典文化。



进入城邦时代后,
雅典有着其他希腊各州的传统组织,
这些州是 民主机构的原型:
包括
一个成年男性公民大会,一个贵族委员会,以及每年选出的官员。公元前
600
年到公元前
450
年之间,雅典人从这个传统框架中发展出一个希腊人 认为完全成熟的民主宪法,尽管享
有投票权的人群并没有现在的人多。



梭伦在公元前
594
年发起了改革的第一步。
他打破了贵族对选举的束缚,< br>将任职资格建
立在财富而不是血统上,
废除普通雅典民众对贵族的经济义务,
并 允许公民大会
(其中所有
公民都是平等的成员)在某些情况下驳回地方法院的决定。在公元前< br>6
世纪剩余的时间里,
专制政府的兴起进一步削弱了雅典贵族的实力。
专制政府 指的是政府被一个铁腕人物暂时管
理(不是我们现在意义上所说的由一个无情的独裁者统治)。
庇西特拉替德,
作为铁腕人物
的继承者(由王朝创始人庇西特拉图而来),
不惜牺牲雅 典贵族的权利,加强了中央政府管
理,在所有地区任命法官,创建雅典第一套国家货币制度,并且对于关 注雅典,而非周边地
区当地村庄的节日,
增加数量并且注重装饰。
到世纪末,
改革时机更为成熟时,铁腕人物被
驱逐,并在公元前
508
年,新的改革者克利斯提尼 最终减少了贵族的控制。



克利斯提尼对于创造雅典民主的主要贡献,< br>是他完成了弱化家族和宗族结构
(尤其是贵族家
族和宗族结构)
的漫长历程,< br>并且在他们所在地方设置基于位置的团体
——
称为群落,
这成
为了雅典 所有公民和大多数宗教生活的切入点。群落外面还建有
10
个人口数量相当的人工
部落 。群落中,通过选举或评选产生一个由
500
名成员组成的新理事会,
6000
名法庭陪审
员,
10
位将军,数百名委员。公民大会在所有问题上都是至高无上的, 但在实际中其权力
下放给了下属机构,
如理事会为公民大会的会议制定会议议程,
而法 庭则是处理大多数司法
事务的。各委员会作为一个执行部门,负责实施公民大会的各项政策,
并 监督诸如食品、供
水和公共建筑的事情。
这种公民大范围参与的政府,
使得雅典城邦的 民主形式与其他没那么
自由的民主形式截然不同。

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克利斯提尼改革的效果是使得雅典社会作为一个整体,
比当地组织更优越但却没有摧毁
它们。
国家政治而非局部或群落政治成为了焦点。
同 时,
群落层面也开始进入国家政治,国
家政治也使得当地的忠诚转向了雅典本身。
在接 下来的两个世纪里,
克利斯提尼改革的影响
得到了充分利用。

在公元前第五 世纪,
这个
500
人的理事会在制定政策时影响极大。
然而,
在接下 来的一个世
纪,成熟的公民大会承担了决策制定的责任。除了那些被所谓的

下等人< br>”
抢了风头的贵族,
雅典的民主政治无论以什么标准来衡量都可以说是惊人的成功。如此多的人参与了真正意义
上的自我管理,
可谓前无古人,
后无来者。
正 是这种参与公共生活的机会激励了希腊古典文
化开始走向辉煌。



Latitude and Biodiversity
When we look at the way in which biodiversity (biological diversity) is distributed over the
land surface of the planet, we find that it is far from even. The tropics contain many more species
overall than an equivalent area at the higher latitudes. This seems to be true for many different
groups of animals and plants. ■


Why is it that
higher latitudes have lower diversities than the tropics? ■Perhaps it is simply a
matter of land area.■
The tropics contain a larger surface area of land than higher latitudes

a fact
that is not always evident when we examine commonly used projections of Ea
rth’s curved surface,
since this tends to exaggerate the areas of land in the higher latitudes

and some biogeographers
regard the differences in diversity as a reflection of this effect.
■But an analysis of the data by
biologist
Klaus
Rohde
does
not
support
this
explanation.
Although
area
may
contribute
to
biodiversity,
it
is
certainly
not
the
whole
story;
otherwise,
large
landmasses
would
always
be
richer in species.

Productivity
seems
to
be
involved
instead,
though
perhaps
its
influence
is
indirect.
Where
conditions are most suitable for plant growth

that is, where temperatures are relatively high and
uniform
and
where
there
is
an
ample
supply
of
water

one
usually
finds
large
masses
of
vegetation.
This
leads
to
a
complex
structure
in
the
layers
of
plant
material.
In
a
tropical
rain
forest,
for
example,
a
very
large
quantity
of
plant
material
builds
up
above
the
surface
of
the
ground .There is also a large mass of material, developed below ground as root tissues, but this is
less apparent. Careful analysis of the above ground material reveals that it is arranged in a series
of
layers,
the
precise
number
of
layers
varying
with
age
and
the
nature
of
the
forest.
The
arrangement of the biological mass (
“structure” (as opposed to its “composition,” which refers to the species of organisms forming the
community). Structure is essentially the architecture of vegetation, and as in the case of tropical
forests,
it
can
be
extremely
complicated.
In
a
mature
floodplain
tropical
forest
in
the
Amazon
River basin, the canopy (the uppermost layers of a forest, formed by the crowns of trees) takes on
a stratified structure. There are three clear peaks in leaf cover at heights of approximately 3, 6, and
30 meters above the ground; and the very highest layer, at 50 meters, corresponds to the very tall
trees that stand free of the main canopy and form an open layer of their own. So, such a forest
contains essentially four layers of canopy. Forests in temperate lands often have just two canopy
layers, so they have much less complex architecture.
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Structure
has
a
strong
influence
on
the
animal
life
inhabiting
a
site.
It
forms
the
spatial
environment
within
which
an
animal
feeds,
moves
around
shelters,
lives,
and
breeds.
It
even
affects
the
climate
on
a
very
local
level
(the

by
influencing
light
intensity,
humidity, and both the range and extremes of temperature. An area of grassland vegetation with
very simple structure, for example, has a very different microclimate at the ground level from that
experienced in the upper canopy. Wind speeds are lower, temperatures are lower during the day
(but warmer at night), and the relative humidity is much greater near the ground. The complexity
of the microclimate is closely related to the complexity of structure in vegetation, and generally
speaking,
the
more
complex
the
structure
of
vegetation,
the
more
species
of
animal
are
able
to
make a living there. The high plant biomass of the tropics leads to a greater spatial complexity in
the
environment,
and
this
leads
to
a
higher
potential
for
diversity
in
the
living
things
that
can
occupy
a
region.
The
climates
of
the
higher
latitudes
are
generally
less
favorable
for
the
accumulation of large quantities of biomass; hence, the structure of vegetation is simpler and the
animal diversity is consequently lower.

1. The word “
distributed
” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. represented
B. collected
C. spread
D. managed

2. The word “overall” in the passage is closest in meaning to

A. considered as a whole
B. to some degree
C. possibly
D. evidently
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3. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted
sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out
essential information.
A. Some biogeographers believe that the tropics have larger surface areas than they actually do
because of the distortions produced by projections of Earth’s curved surface

B. High levels of diversity in the tropics are sometimes attributed to the fact that the tropics have
more surface area of land than the higher latitudes do, though distortions in commonly used
projections may seem to suggest otherwise.
C. Because biogeographers disagree on whether or not the tropics are correctly represented in
projections of Earth s surface, it is difficult to determine the relationship their surface area has to
their diversity
D. Most biogeographers agree that the tropics contain a larger surface area of land than higher
latitudes do

but they disagree on whether or not the tropics’ level of diversity is
a reflection of
that larger surface area.

4. Why does the author mention “
Klaus Rohde
” in the passage?

A. To support the argument that large landmasses are usually richer in species than smaller ones
are
B. To introduce the argument that there are other factors contributing to species diversity besides
land area
C. To cast doubt on whether the tropics actually contain higher species diversity than land at
higher latitudes does

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