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历史朝代顺序歌英文资料及中文译文

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2021-01-19 15:38
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如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城

英文资料及中文译文2021年1月19日发(作者:包崇金)




外文资料及中文译文





















指导教师姓名
专业技术职务





























































张晓燕





































外文资料

Clustering and Industrialization

Introduction
UCTION
Compared with a decade ago, there is now more optimism concerning the growth
and export prospects of small manufacturers in developing countries. Recent research
on

industrial clusters has made a major contribution to this shift in the debate. There is
increasing
agreement
that
clustering
helps
small
enterprises
to
overcome
growth
constraints and compete in distant markets but there is also recognition that this is not
an automatic outcome.
One of the main objectives of this Special Issue is to specify the circumstances in
which
clustering
boosts
industrial
growth
and
competitiveness.
This
Introduction
stresses
that
such
an
undertaking
needs
to
distinguish
between
incipient
and
more
advanced stages of industrialization.
It argues that clustering is particularly relevant
for
the
early
stage
by
helping
small
enterprises
to
growing
riskable
steps.
Some
articles
in
this
Special
Issue
show
both
the
importance
and
limitations
of
this
argument. Other contributions focus more on mature clusters that include medium and
large enterprises. These contributions examine the ability of such clusters to cope with
global competitive pressures and they help to specify the circumstances that make the
difference between success and failure.
The
aim
of
this
introductory
article
is
fourfold.
First,
it
traces
briefly
the
trajectory
of
the
debate
on
industrial
clusters
in
developing
countries.
Second,
it
identifies
what
we

as
editors

consider
the
key
issues
in
the
debate.
Third,
it
highlights how the contributors to this Special Issue advance our knowledge on these
questions. Fourth, it brings out the limitations of the work accomplished so far and the
implications for future research.
TORY OF THE CLUSTER DEBATE- BRIEF OVERVIEW
Contributors to this Special Issue use a simple definition of clusters as sectoral
and spatial concentrations of firms. Such clusters have received increasing attention in
research
on
advanced
countries,
especially
in
some
lines
of

New
Mainstream
Economics
(Krugman,1991),
Business
Economics
(Porter,1990)
Regional
Science(Scott,1996)
and
Innovation
Studies(Braczyk,

Cookeand


Heidenreich,
1998).
They
share
a
view
of
enterprises
as
connected
entities
and
an
emphasis
on
local
factors
for
competing
in
global
markets.
Research
on
clusters
in
developing
countries
also
shares
this
view
but
it
has
a
different
trajectory:
it
grew
out
of
the

1

small-scale industry debate. The latter was a tired line of research in the late 1980s,
kept alive more by the short comings of large firms in creating employment than new
theoretical or policy approaches.
Those
studying
small-scale
industry
in
developing
countries
eagerly
received
accounts
of
small-firm
industrial
districts
in
Europe,
especially
Italy,
conquering
international
markets.
These
success
stories,
while
referring

to
experiences
in
the1970s
and
1980s,
did
not
(with
the
exception
of
Pioreand
Sabel,1984)
become
widely
known
in
the
international
community
until
the
late
1980s
and
early
1990s
(Garofoli, 1992; Goodman and Bamford, 1989; Pyke,

Becattini and Sengen-berger,
1990;
Pyke
and
Sengenberger,
1992).
They
were,
however,
soon
translated
into
an
agenda
for
research
on
developing
countries
(Schmitz,
1989)
which
had
two
main
questions:
first, are there similar industrial clusters in
developing countries;
second,
what are the conditions which either produce, modify or prevent their growth? Initial
attempts at answering these questions, using the flexible specialization framework set
out by Piore and Sabel (1984), largely examined data that had been collected for other
purposes (for example, Pedersen, Sverisson and van Dijk, 1994; Rasmussen, Schmitz
and
van
Dijk,
1992).
New
empirical
research
explicitly
undertaken
to
assess
the
relevance
of
clustering
in
developing
countries
came
later,
gradually
leading
to
a
substantial body of original case material and substantive theoretical discussion (for
example
Das,
1998;
Holmstrom,
1998;
Meyer-Stamer
et
al.,
1996;
van
Dijk
and
Rabellotti, 1997; Visser, 1996). The main lessons can be summed up as follows:

-Industrial clustering in developing countries is significant. The growing amount
of
case
material
shows
that
clusters
are
common
in
a
wide
range
of
countries
and
sectors
(Nadvi
and
Schmitz,
1994).
Their
statistical
significance
in
industrial
production is hard to determine, however, because economic regions do not respect
administrative
boundaries
and
industrial
classic
factions
often
fail
to
capture
the
existing
specialization.
Krugman
(1991)
pointed
this
out
for
the
case
of
advanced
countries. The same applies to developing countries. The growth experiences of these
clusters
vary
widely.
At
one
end
of
the
spectrum
are
clusters
which
show
little
dynamism and seem unable to expand innovate (e.g.,McCormick, 1998). At the other
end are clusters which have been able to deepen the inter- firm division of labor, raise
their competitiveness and break into international markets (Cawthorne, 1995; Nadvi,
1999b;
Schmitz,
1995).
Along
the
spectrum
there
are
many
intermediate
cases
(Knorringa,

1996; Rabellotti, 1997; Sandee, 1995; Visser, 1996). Even the successful
clusters
differ
in
several
respects
from
the
Italian
model.
Internal
heterogeneity
is

2

pronounced
(Knorringa,
1996;
Rabellotti
and
Schmitz,
1997).
Except
in
the
rudimentary
clusters,
medium
and
large
firms
have
emerged
and
play
an
important
role
in
the
governance
of
these
clusters.
In
this
respect
the
developing
country
experiences are substantially different from the Italian model (based on the 1970s and
1980s experience) but not different from the Italian reality of the 1990s (Bruscoet al.,
1996; Rabellotti, 1997).

Contrasting
the
developing
country
clusters
with
the
Italian
model
was
in
a
number of studies a useful initial framework but the consensus now is to move from
models
to
trajectories
(Humphrey,
1995).
This
shift
to
a
dynamic
approach,
which
seeks to understand the processes that lead to success or failure, is the core theme of
this Special Issue on industrial clusters in developing countries.
3. TOWARD A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In spite of the diversity of experiences recorded so far, the focus on clusters has
proved
to
be
analytically
useful.
The
most
fundamental
analytical
insight
did
not,
however,
come
from
recent
studies
but
from
old
theory.
In
his
Principles
of
Economics, Marshall (1920) showed why clustering could help enterprises especially
small ones to compete. He noted hat the agglomeration of firms engaged in similar or
related activities generated a range of localized external economies that lowered costs
or clustered producers. Such advantages included a pool of specialized workers, easy
access to suppliers of specialized inputs and services and the quick dissemination of
new knowledge.
Such external
economies
help
explain the growth
of
contemporary
industrial clusters and Marshallfl century-old work is a standard reference in this new
literature.

It
is
also
agreed,
however,
that
Marshallian
external
economies
are
not
all
to
explain
cluster
development.
In
addition
to
incidental
external
economies,
there
is
often a deliberate force at work, namely the conscious pursuit of joint action. This is
what
emerges
from
research
on
industrial
clusters
in
advanced
and
in
developing
countries (Brusco, 1990; Cooke and Morgan, 1998; Humphrey and Schmitz, 1998;
Rabellotti, 1997; Tendler and Amorim, 1996).

In our own work we brought together
the incidental and deliberate into the concept of collective defined as the competitive
advantage
derived
from
external
economies
and
joint
action.
By
calling
the
former
passive and the latter active collective one
can
express
neatly that
clustering brings
two
advantages:
those
that
fall
into
the
producer
lap
and
those
that
require
joint
(Nadvi, 1996; Schmitz, 1995).






We have also suggested that pairing the passive and active components helps to

3

如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城


如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城


如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城


如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城


如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城


如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城


如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城


如何开发幼儿智力-盾安新一城



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