whatever什么意思英语语言学期末复习

2021年1月19日发(作者：带走我的呼吸)
Chapter5Semantics
1. Definition
1.
命名论
The naming theory
Proposed
by
the
ancient
Greek
scholar
Plato.
According
to
this
theory,
the
linguistic
forms
or
symbols,
in
other
words,
the
words
used
in
a
language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words
are just names or labels for things.(
缺点：仅限于名词
)
2.
意念论
The conceptualist view Ogden and Richards

It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it
refers to; rather, intheinterpretationof meaning they are linked through
the mediation of concepts in the mind.
3.
语境论
Conceptualism
It’sbasedonthep resumptionthatonecanderivemeaning
fromorreducem ea
etwokindsofcontext:thesituationalandt
hel inguisticcontext.
4.
行为主义论
Behaviorism
It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as
the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth
in the hearer. This theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes
on the psychological response.
lmeaning:
Sens e:itisconcernedwithinherentmeaningoflinguisticform ;itisthecollectio
nofallfeaturesoflinguisticfor m;itisabstractandde-contextualized.
Reference: itmeansthelinguisticformreferstothereal,s
witht herelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon -linguisticwo
rldofexperience.
3. Main sense relations

1.
同义词
Synonymy
Itreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningor wecansaythatwordsa
recloseinmeaningarecalledsyn onyms.
(1)

Dialectal synonyms
—
synonyms used in different regional dialects
（方
言）

British



America
autumnfall
flatapartment
(2)

Stylistic synonyms---Synonyms differing in style
（文体）

Old man daddy father male parent
(3)Synonyms that different intheiremotive or evaluative meaning
（情感）
Collaborator VS Accomplice
(4)Collocational synonyms
（搭配）

Accuse VS Charge
（
accuse
…
of; charge
…
with
）

Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs
(5)Semantically different synonyms
（语义）

AmazeVSAstound
2.
多义词
Polysemy
Itreferstodifferentw ordsmayhavethesameorsimilar
meaning;thesameone wordmayhavemorethanonemeaning.
Ball:1. anroundobjectusedingame.
formalsocialeventatwhichpeopledance.
3.
同音
(
形
)
异义
Homonymy
It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings
have
the
same
form,
i.e.,
different
words
are
identical
in
sound
or
spelling, or in both.
1). Homophones
同音异义

It refers to two words are identical in sound. E.g. rain/reign.
2).Homographs
同形异义

It refers to two words are identical in form.E.g. tear v. /tear n.
3). Complete homonyms
同形同音

.
/tearn.
4.
上下义关系
Hyponymy
Itrefe rstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclus ive
dwhichismoregeneralinmeaningis
calledsup erordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshypo nyms.
Superordinate:animal
Subordinate:cat, dog,tiger,lion,wolf,elephant,fox,bear,
5.
反义词
Antonymy
It
is
the
term
used
for
oppositeness
of
meaning
on
different
dimension.
a) gradable:
等级反义词
old-young
b) complementary
：互补反义词
male-female
c) relational:
关系反义词
father-son buy-sell
cesenserelations:
1
）
.X is synonymous with Y
（同义）

E.g. He is a bachelor all his life.
He never married all his life.
2
）
. X is inconsistent with Y
（不一致
/
反义）

E.g. John is married
John is a bachelor.
3
）
.X entails Y
. (Y is an entailment of X)
（包含于）

E.g. He has been to France.
He has been to Europe.
4
）
. X presuppose Y
（
Y
是
X
的先决条件）


’
s bike needs repairing.
John has a bike.
5
）
. X is a contradiction
（
X
是一个矛盾句）

E.g. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6). X is semantically anomalous.
（语义异常）

E.g. The table has bad intensions.
isofmeaning
1. Componential Analysis
成分分析法
----
分析词汇抽象意义

It’s
awayproposedbythestructuralsemanticiststoanaly zewordmea
proachisbaseduponthebeliefthatmeaning ofawordcanbedis
sectedintomeaningcomponents,cal ledsemanticfeatures.
=Adult+Male+Animate+Human
2. Predication Analysis
述谓结构分析
(
由
British Linguist
提出
)
It
’
s a new approach for sentential meaning analysis. Predication
is
usually
considered
an
important
common
category
shared
by
propositions,
questions,
commands
etc.(
通过对论元
argument
和谓
语
predicate
的分析，达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一
种
.)
3.
先设前提
Presupposition
It
’
s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes B.
4.
蕴涵
Entailment
Enta ilmentcanbeillustratedbythefollowingtwosentencesin whichsent
enceAentailssentenceB.
A:Markmarriedablondeheiress.
B:Markmarriedablonde.
第
6
章
pragmatics
本章要点：

act theory
言语行为的理论

2. cooperative principle and its maxims
合作原则及其准则

an theory of conventional implicature
格莱斯会话含义理论

本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语 用学的区别；语境与意义；言
语行为理论（发话行为、行事行为和取效行为）
；合作原则。实例 分
析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。

本章内容索引：

1
．
PragmaticsDefinitionPragmatics&semanticsC ontext
Sentencemeaningvsutterancemeaning
2
．
Speech act theory
Austin’smodelofspeechacts

Searl’sclassificationofspeechacts

Indirectspeechacts
3
．
Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxims Violation of the maxims
4
．
Conversational implicature
Definition:
Characteristicsofconversationa limplicativeCalculabilityCancellabilityN
on- detachabilityNon-conventionality
5
．
Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
1
．
Pragmatics
Definition
：
It
is
the
study
of
speakers
of
a
language
use
sentences to effect successful communication.
Pragmatics & semantics
If
the
context
was
taken
into
the
study
of
meaning,
then
the
study calls pragmatics.
Context
A:
Definition:It
is
generally
considered
as
the
knowledge
that
shared by the speaker and hearer.
B:
Significance:
It
determines
the
speaker’suse
of
language
and
the hearer’s interpretation of what is said to him. With context, the
communication would achieve satisfactory result.
Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning
句子意义和话语意义

Sentence meaning: abstract and de-contextualized.
Utterance meaning: concrete and context dependent, and based
on sentence meaning.
2
．

Speech act theory
Austin
’
s model of speech acts
为
)
：

A: an act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. Literal meaningby
means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
B:
An
illocutionary
act(
言外行为
)
：
an
act
of
expressing
the
speaker
’
s intention.

C: An perlocutionary act(
言后行为
)
：
an act of performed by or
resulting from saying something; the consequence or change brought
about by the utterance;
Searl
’
s(
瑟尔
) classification of speech acts
A:
Representatives(
阐述类
):
stating
or
describing,
saying
something
what the speaker believes to be true.
陈述，
相信，
发誓
Eg: I swear I
have never seen the man before.
B: directive(
指令类
)
：
Trying to get the hearer to do
，
ask
，
beseech
，
command
，
demand
，
order
，
reque st
，
tell
，
urge.E.g.
：
open the door!
C:
Commissives(
承诺类
)
：
committing
the
speaker
himself
to
some
future course of
，
consent
，
guar antee
，
offer
，
pledge
，
promise
，
refuse
，
threaten. E.g.
：
I promise to come!
D:
Expressives(
表达类
)
：
expressing
the
feeling
or
attitude
towards an existing state. apologize
，
b oast
，
congratulate
，
deplore
，
regret
，
thank
，
welcomeEg
：
I am sorry for the mess I have made. about
immediate change by saying something.
E:
Declarations(
宣告类
)
：
bring
about
immediate
change
by
saying t
，
bless
，
christen
，declare
，
name
，
nominate
，
re sign. E.g.: I fire you.
Indirect speech acts (developed by Searl)
Two speech acts:
The primary:
speaker’s goal of communication

The second: means by which he achieves his goal.
3
．

Principle of conversion
Cooperative principle and its maxims (Paul Grice)
A: the maxim of quantity
量的准则
: (you are what you say)
Make
your
contribution
informative
as
required,
not
more
informative
than required.
B: the maxim of quality
质的准则
: Tautologies(
意思重复
)
Do
not
say
something
you
believe
is
false,
or
something
is
lake
of
evidence.

C: the maxim of relation
关系准则
:



Be relevant.
D: the maxim of manner
方式准则
:
Avoid obscurity, ambiguity, be brief and orderly.
Violation of the maxims
通过实例分析违反准则。

4
．

Conversational implicature
Definition: Characteristics of conversational implicative
●

Cancellability/defeasibility
This
means
that
an
implicature
can
be
cancelled.
The
feature
allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature.

A: Let's have a drink.
B: It's not one o'clock yet. (Implying we can drink after one o'clock)
A: I didn't say that you could drink after one o'clock. I said that you
couldn't drink before. (theimplicature disappears)
●

Non- detachability
This
means
that
an
implicature
is
attached
to
the
semantic
content of what is said, not to linguistic form. Therefore implicatures
cannot be detached from an utterance simply by changing the words
for synonyms or in other words by relexicalization or reformulation.
For example, if everyone knows that Bob is an idiot, saying
a genius
choose
any
of
the
following
synonymous
expressions
to
maintain
the
same implicature:
a) Bob is a mental prodigy.
b) Bob is an exceptionally clever human being.

c) Bob is an enormous intellect.
d) Bob is a big brain.
●

Calculability/derivability
This means that an implicature is calculable, that is to say, it can be
worked out from the literal meaning or the sense of the utterance on the
one
hand,
and
the
Cooperative
Principle
and
its
maxims
on
the
other
hand.

●

Non-conventionality
This is to say that conversational implicatures are not conventional,
that is, not part of the conventional meaning of linguistic expressions.
But
we
should
notice
that
what
begins
as
a
conversational
implicature
may
become
the
meaning
of
a
lexical
item
or
linguistic
expression. For example:

to
the
bathroom
originally
meant
Going
to
WC
as
an
euphemism,
but
now
has
become
conventionalized.
We
don
’
t
have
to
derive the implicature by the CP but by convention.
5
．

Cross-cultural pragmatics failure
第
7
章
language changes
语言变化

本章要点：

1
．

Phonological change
音系变化

2
．

Morphological and syntactic change
形态和句法变化


3
．

Lexical and semantic change
词汇和语义变化

本章考点：
新词的增加：
创新词，
缩略词，
紧缩词，
词首字母缩略 词，
逆构词法；词义的变化：词义扩大，缩小，意义的转换。

tion of historical linguistics
历史语言学的定义

A branch of linguistics. It concerned with the description and explanation
of language changes that occurred over the time.
2. Phonological change
Phonological change tends to be systematic. It is possible to see a regular
pattern
of
pronunciation
changes
throughout
the
history
of
English
language.
3. Morphological and syntactic change Addition of affixes
词汇的增加

In English many affixes are borrowed. Eg the suffix
–
ment in French.
Lost of affixes
Some affixes fade out of use
Changes for word order
Case marking lost, subject-object-verb fixed.
Change in negation rule Eg. I love thee not.
>I do not love thee.
4 lexical and semantic change
(1)

Addition of new words
新词的增加

A: coinage/invention
A new word can be
coined outright to fit some purpose. Eg: walkman,
Kodak, Ford
B: clipped words
Clipping
refers
to
the
abbreviation
of
longer
words
or
phrase.

Eg
gym-gymnasium




Expo-
exposition




Memo-memorandum



Disco- discotheque
C: blending
A blend is a word formed by combining parts of other words. Eg smog =
smoke+fog



Motel
Brunch = breakfast+lunch
D: Acronyms
Acronyms
are
word
derived
from
the
initials
of
several
words.
Eg
BBC
VOA
E: Back-formation Deleting the affixes.

E.g. to automate
自动化←
automation

to legislate
立法←
legislation
F: Functional shift
Word-class shift from one to another. Eg noun- verb love
G
：
Borrowing
借词法

(2)Loss of words
词汇的废弃
Eg beseem
–

to be suitable



Wot
–

to know




Gyve
–

a fetter
(3) change in the meaning of words

Semantic broadening
词义扩大

Holiday
原形是
holy day
神圣的宗教节日，现在指不用上班的时间。

Semantic narrowing
词义的缩小

Hound
曾经用来指
Dog
的总称，现在缩小为指某一种特殊的狗。

Semantic shift
词义转换

Inn
原本指小旅馆小酒吧，现在指非常有名的好旅馆。

5 Some recent trends
A: moving to greater informality. Ain
’
t can
’
t
didn’t
’
t
出现在文章中。

B: the influence of American English
随着政治经济文化的发张，美国的影视，报纸，杂志，广播和电视对
世界文化 造成很大的影响。

C: the influence of technology and science
新的技术科技的发展创造出
新的词汇和表达

D: Space travel
Space suit, heat-shield splash- down
E: computer and internet language Program input output
F: Ecology
生态学环境保护和资源保护。

6 causes of language change
语言变化的原因经济政治文化发展。


第
8
章
sociolinguistics
1 the scope of sociolinguistics
The
definition
of
sociolinguistics
定义
:
It
is
a
branch
of
linguistics
that
studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of
language and social structures in which the users of language live.
The relatedness between the language and society
相关性

The
main
function
of
language
is
communication,
but
it
also
use
to
establish and maintain social relationship.
Users of the same language may speak differently because their different
social background.
Speech community and speech variety
言语团体与言语变体

Speech community: the social special study.
Speech variety: any distinguishable form of language used by a speaker
or a group of speakers. Speech features can be found at the lexical, the
phonological, morphological, or the syntactical level of the language.
Two approaches to sociolinguistics studies
Macro-sociolinguistics or the sociology of language :
宏观社会语言学或
者语言社会学

View the society as a whole and consider how language