chemistry是什么意思lexicology词汇学名词解释

2021年1月19日发(作者：jinv)
Chapter 1
Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary


1
．

The definition of a word
：



A word is a minimal free form of language which has a given sound and meaning
and syntactic function.

2
．

Sound and Meaning



There is no logical or intrinsic connection between a sound and what it refers to.
The relation between sound and meaning is almost always arbitrary or conventional.
The same language can use the same sound to mean different things and the different
languages use different sounds to refer to the same thing.
3
．

Sound and Form


The written form of English is not an accurate representation of the spoken form.
There are different causes of the differences between sounds and forms in the English
language.
1) The English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not employ the
system of one single letter to stand for one sound.
2) The early scribes deliberately changed spelling of words to make a line even or for
easier recognition.
3) Dictionaries help to fix the spelling of words

4) English has borrowed many words from other languages, which may not have been
assimilated .

4
．

Vocabulary

All the words in a language are termed as vocabulary. However, vocabulary can also
be used to refer to all the words in a book, or in a particular historical period of time,
or in a dialect, or in a particular discipline, or even to all the words that a person
possesses.
5
．

Classification of Words


Words can be classified into the basic word stock and non- basic word stock by use
frequency, into content words and functional words by notion and into native words
and borrowed words by origin.

1) The Characteristics of the Basic Word Stock


(1) All national character

(2)stability

(3)productivity

(4)polysemy

(5)collocability
2) The Characteristics of borrowed words

(1)Denizens: the early borrowed words which have been assimilated and conformed
to the English way of pronunciation and spelling.
(2)Aliens: the borrowed words which have retained the foreign way of pronunciation
or spelling and have not been assimilated into the English language.
(3)Translation-loans: the words and expressions which are formed from the existing
English materials, but modeled on the patterns of another language.
(4)Semantic loans: words which have not been borrowed with reference to the form,
but to the meanings.
3) Roles Played by the native words.


Native words are limited in number, but form the core of the English language.
Native words are often neutral in style and frequent in use
Chapter 3 Word Formation I


1
．
Morphemes


Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of a language.
2
．
Allomorphs


Some morphemes are realized by more than one morph. Such alternative morphs of
a morpheme are called allomorphs.
3
．
Types of Morphemes

1) Free Morphemes

Free morphemes are those which usually have complete meanings in themselves
and can be used freely or independently as words.

2) Bound Morphemes

Bound morphemes have to be bound with other morphemes to form words and can
not be used independently as words.
3) Free Roots

Free roots are free morphemes. They are identical with root words.
4) Bound Roots

A bound root, like a free root, is that part of the word that carries the fundamental
meaning of a word, but unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to be bound with
other morphemes to form words.
5)Affixes


Affixes are forms that are attached to stems to modify meaning or function. Almost
all the affixes are bound.
6)Inflectional Affixes

An inflectional affix is one attached to the end of a word to convey grammatical
meaning or grammatical relation, such as tense, case, number, comparative or
superlative degree, etc.
7) Derivational Affixes

A derivational affix is one that is added to the beginning or the end of a word in
order to create a new word. Derivational affixes can be divided into prefixes and
suffixes.
8)Prefixes

Prefixes are the morphemes that occur at the beginning of a word. They modify the
meaning of a stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.
9)Suffixes

Suffixes occur at the end of stems. Though they can modify the meanings of the
original words, their chief function is to change the parts of speech of words.
4
．
Root and Stem


1) Root

A root is the basic form of a word which can not be further analyzed without total
loss of identity. It carries the main component of the meaning of a word. It can also be
defined as that part of a word which remains after all the inflectional and derivational
affixes have been removed.
2) Stem


A stem can be defined as any form to which an affix can be added.
Chapter 4
Word Formation II


1
．
Affixation


Affixation is the process of forming words by adding derivational affixes to stems.
It is also called derivation. Words formed in this way are derivatives.

1) Prefixation


Prefixation is a way of forming new words by adding prefixes to stems. Usually,
prefixes do not change the part of speech of a word. Their chief function is to modify
its meaning, although there are exceptions. Prefixes can be divided, based on their
meanings, into: negative prefixes, reversative prefixes, pejorative prefixes, prefixes of
degree or size, locative prefixes, prefixes of time and order, number prefixes and
miscelaneous prefixes.
2) Suffixation

Suffixation is the process of forming new words by adding suffixes to the end of
stems. The chief role of a suffix is not to modify the meaning of a stem, rather to
change the grammatical function of a stem, though there are a few exceptions.
Suffixes can be divided into noun suffixes, adjective suffixes, adverb suffixes and
verb suffixes.
2
．
Compounding


1) Definition

Compounding is a process of word formation by which two or more stems are put
together to make one word. The word formed in this way is called a compound

2) Characteristics of compounds
(1)Phonetic feature

The word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element, while in a free
phrase, the second element is usually stressed. If a compound has two stresses, it is
the first element that receives the primary stress.
(2)Semantic feature

The meaning of a compound is a semantic unity, which,usually, is not the total sum
of all the meanings of the constituent words in a compound.

(3) Grammatical feature


A compound usually plays a single grammatical role in a sentence.

3
．
Conversion


1) Definition

Conversion is the formation of new words by converting words of one part of
speech to the words of another part of speech, without changes in morphological
structures. Words created are new only in a grammatical sense.
2)Types of conversion
(1)Conversion to Nouns

to noun

ive to noun

c. miscellaneous conversion

(2)Conversion to Verbs


a. noun to verb


b. adjective to verb

c. miscellaneous conversion
3)Semantic features of conversion
1)Verb to noun

The new words obtained through conversion are usually related to the original words
in the following ways:
(1)state of mind or sensation
(2)event or activity
(3)result of the action
(4)doer of the action
(5)tool or instrument to do the action with
(6)place of the action


2)Noun to verb

(1)to put in or on N

(2)to give N or to provide with N

(3)to remove N from

(4)to do with N

(5)to be or act as n

(6)to make or change into N

(7)to send or go by N
4
．
Blending

1) Definition

Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word
plus a part of another word
2)Categories of Blending
(1)the first part of the first word + the last part of the second word:
botel: boat +
hotel
汽艇游客旅馆

(2) the whole part of the first word + last part of the second word: lunarnaut: lunar +
astronaut
登月宇航员

(3)the whole form of the second word + the first part of the first word: Eurasian:
Europe + Asian
欧亚混血儿

(4)the first part of the first word + the first part of the second word: sitcom: situation +
comedy
情景喜剧

5
．
Clipping

1) Definition

Clipping is to shorten a long word by cutting a part off the original and use what has
remained as a word.
2) Types of Clipping
(1)Front clipping:
(2)Back clipping:
(3)Front and back clipping:

(4)Phrase clipping:

6
．
Acronymy

1) Definition

Acronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of
phrases.
2)Types of Acronymy
(1)Initialisms

Initialisms are words pronounced letter by letter: VOA from Voice of America
(2)Acronyms
Acronyms are words formed from initial letters but pronounced as a normal word.

7
．
Backformation


Back-formation is the opposite process of suffixation. It is the process of making a
new word by dropping the supposed suffix: e.g.
8
．

New Words from Proper Names

1) Names of people
2)Names of places

3)Names of books

4)Tradenames

When proper nouns are commonized, many of them have lost their original
identity;the initial letter many not be capitalized. They can be combined with other
morphemes to form words of other word classes. The commonized proper nouns are
rich in cultural associations. They are stylistically vivid, expressive and
thought-provoking.
Chapter 5 Word Meaning


1
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The meaning of

1.1 Reference


Reference is the conventional or arbitrary relationship between language and the
world. Part of the word meaning is the reference.
1.2 Concept
Though meaning and concept are closely related, they belong to different categories:
Concept is the result of human cognition while meaning is the result of language use.
1.3 Sense
Sense denotes the intrinsic semantic relationship inside the language. it is not
concerned with the connection between words and what these words indicate in the
word. The sense of an expression is its place in a system of semantic relationships
with other expressions in the language.

2
．
Motivation



Motivation refers to the connection between the linguistic symbol and its
meaning. Most words are non-motivated.
2.1
．

Onomatopoeic motivation


The sounds of some words suggest their meanings, because they are created by
imitating the natural sounds. But these onomatopoeic words are also largely
conventional, because different languages may use different forms to indicate these
sounds.
2.2 Semantic motivation

Semantic motivation explains the relationships between the literal sense and the
figurative sense through associations.

2.3 Etymological motivation

Etymological motivation means that the meanings of words can be explained with
reference to etymological information. Very often, the history of the word can explain
why a form has acquired a particular meaning.
2.4 Morphological motivation

Morphological motivation tries to establish the connection of meaning of the word
to its form from morphological point of view. Sometimes, we can work out the
meaning of a word if we know the meaning of the morphemes that constitute that
word.


3
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Types of meaning

Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field

1
．
Polysemy


Polysemy refers to the phenomenon in which one and the same word has more
than one meaning.
1.1 Two approaches to polysemy
1) Diachronic approach: Polysemy is described as the result of the historical
development of the semantic features of one and the same word.

2) Synchronic approach: Polysemy is viewed as the co- existence of various meanings
of the same word at a particular point in time.
1.2
Two processes of development
1) Radiation
：
It is the semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the
centre and the secondary meaning radiates out of it. Though the secondary meanings
are independent of one another, they can all be traced back to the primary meaning.
2) Concatenation: It is the semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves
gradually away from its primary meaning in succession so that the present meaning
seems to have no connection to the primary meaning.
2. Homonymy


There are many pairs or groups of words, which, though different in meaning, are
pronounced alike or spelled alike, or both. Such words are called homonyms.
2.1 Types of homonyms
1)Perfect homonyms: They are different words identical both in sound and spelling,
though different in meaning.
2)Homographs: Homographs are different words identical in spelling, but different in
sound and meaning.
3 )Homophones: They are different words identical in sound but
different
?
in
?
spelling and meaning
2.2 origins of homonyms

Origins of homonyms are change in sound and spelling, borrowing and shortening.
3
．
Synonymy



Synonymy refers to the relationship of similarity or identity in meaning. Synonyms
are the words which have the same or very nearly the same essential meaning.
3.1 Sources of synonyms
1) borrowing
2)dialects and regional English
3) figurative and euphemistic use of words
3.2 Discrimination of synonyms

1) Difference in denotation
2) Difference in the degree of a given quality
3) Differences in associative meanings
4) Differences in use

4
．

Antonymy


Antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning; words that are opposite are
antonyms.
4.1 Types of antonyms

1) Contraries:

Contraries display a type of semantic contrast, illustrated by such pairs as rich and
poor. Contraries are gradable, and the semantic contrast in a contrary pair is relative;
i.e. there are often intermediate terms between the two opposites. So the negation of
one does not necessarily mean the assertion of the other.
2) Contradictory terms