图钉英文新编简明英语语言学教程 戴伟栋版

2021年1月19日发(作者：tiger是什么意思)
新编简明英语语言学教程

戴伟栋版

第
1
章

导言

本章要点：

1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study



语言学的定义和研究范围

2. Important distinction in Linguistic

语言学的一些重要区分

3. The definition and the design features of language
语言的定义和识别特征

4. Function of language
语言的功能

本章考点：

语言学考点：

语言学 的定义，
语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、
区分及其意义；
普通语言< br>学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。

语言的考点：

语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文 化传递性）
；语言的
功能

1,The definition of linguistics
语言的定义：

Linguistics

is
generally
defined
as
the
scientific

study
of
language(based
on
the
systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of
language structure)
scope of linguistics
语言学的范围

A
：

micro-linguistics





Phonetics
（语音学）
: the study of the
sounds
used in linguistic communication.





Phonology
（音系学）
:
the
study
of

how
sounds
put
together
and
used
to
convey meaning
in communication.(
语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式
)





Morphology
（形态学）
: the study of the way in which the
symbols are arranged
and combined
to form words.





Syntax
（句法学）
:
the
study
of
rules
in
the
combination

of
words
to
form
grammatically permissible sentences in language.





Semantics
（语义学）
: the study of
meaning
.





Pragmatics
（语用学）
: the study of the meaning in the
context
of language use.
B
：

macro-linguistics





Sociolinguistics
: the study of all
social aspects
of language and its relation with
the society form the core of the branch.





Psycholinguistics
: the study of language and its relation with
psychology
.





Applied
linguistics
:
the
study
of
application
of
language
to
the
solution
of
practical

problems
. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles
to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.

3. Some important distinctions in linguistics
语言学中的重要区分

A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive
描写式与规定式

Descriptive
:
if
a
linguistic
study
aims
to
describe
and
analyze

the
language
people actually use.
Prescriptive
:
if
the
linguistic
study
aims
to

lay
down
rules

for
“correct
and
standard” behavior in using lan
guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what
they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.
B: Synchronic vs Diachronic
共时性和历时性

Synchronic: the description of a language
at some point of time
in history is a
synchronic study.
Diachronic:
the
description
of
a
language
as
it

changes
through
time

is
a
diachronic study.
C: Speech vs writing
言语和文学




These are major media of communication.
D: Langue vs parole
语言与言语
(Saussure
索緖尔
)



Langue: refers to the
abstract linguistic system
shared by the all the members
of a speech community.



Parole: refers to the
realization of language
in actual use.


E: Competence vs performance
语言能力和语言应用
(Chomsky
乔姆斯基
)




Competence: refers to a user’s
underlying knowledge
about the system of the
rules.




Performance: refers to the
actual use
in concrete situations.



乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：

索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。

乔姆斯基从心理学角度看待语言，对他而言，语言能力是每个个体的大脑特征。

E: Traditional Grammar vs modern linguistics
传统语法与现代语言学




Saussure
的《
Course in General Linguistics
》标志着现代语言学的开端。




区别：

a:
语言学是
descriptive,
传统的语法是
prescriptive.
b:
现代语言学认为口头语是基本的，而不是书面语。

c:
现代语言学并不强迫进入一个拉丁语为基础的框架。

4. The definition of language
语言的定义




Language
is
a

system
of
arbitrary
vocal
symbols

used
for
human
communication.
design features of language
语言的识别特征




The
design
features
of
human
language
can
be
called
design
features
which
distinguish it from animal language system.


A
：
Arbitrariness

任意性







There is
no logical connection
between
meaning
and
sounds
.


B
：

Productivity
能产性








It makes possible the
construction
and
interpretation
of
new signals
by its users
. This is why they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of
sentences, including sentences they have never heard before.


C
：

Duality
二重性





Two levels: At the lower or the basic level is a
structure of sounds
, which are
meaningless
by themselves. At higher level, the sounds of language can be regrouped
and
regrouped into a large number of units of meaning
.
D
：

Displacement
移位性






Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real
or imainged matters in the
past, present or future, or in far-away places
.
E
：

Cultural transmission

文化传递






Language is culturally transmitted.

F
：


Interchangeability

互换性







Refers to man can both produce or receive the massages.
6. Functions of language
语言的功能




A
：

main functions





(1)
Descriptive

function(
描述
):
refers
to
convey

factual

information,
which
can be
stated
or
denied
, and even
verified
.




(2)
Expressive

function(
表达
):
refers
to
emotive
or
attitudinal

function,
con
vey information about user’s feelings, preferences, prejudice, and values.





(3)
Social

function(
社
会
):
refers
to
interpersonal

function,
serves
to
establish
and
maintain
social relations between people.





Jakobson

将语言功能划分六大类：
emotive, conative(
意动
), referential(
指向
),
poetic(
娱乐
), phatic communication(
寒暄
), and matalinguistic(
元语言
).





B
：
macrofunctions






(1)
Ideational
(
概念
): It is to organize the speaker’s or writer’s experience of
the real or imaginary world.






(2)
Interpersonal
(
人际
):
It
is
to
indicate,
establish,
or
maintain
social
relationships between people.






(3)
Textual
:
It
is
to
organize
the
written
or
spoken
texts
in
a
coherent
manner, and fit the particular situation in which they are used.

注意知识点：

opoeic words(
拟声词
) can NOT show arbitrary nature of language.
(
拟声词并不能表示语言的任意性，有些拟声词和所表达的事物是有联系的。
)

2.
聋哑人所使用的语言也是语言。


3.
语言的改变并不是任意的，而是遵循社会规律的。


4.
语言是在人类出现一段时间后出现的。


第
2
章

音位学

本章要点：

1. Speech organs



发音器官

2. Distinction, classification and the criteria of description between constants and vowels



辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则

3. Phonemes and allophones



音位和音位变体

4. Phonological rule and distinctive features




音系规则和区别特征

5. Syllable structure, stress and intonation
音节结构、重音和语调

本章考点：

语音学：

语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语 辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语
元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学 ；声学语音学；语音标记；严式标
音法和宽式标音法。

音系学：

音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的区别；音素，音位，音位变体最小对立体，自由变体的定
义；自由变体 ；音位对立分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重
音，句子重音）
； 音高和音调。


本章内容索引：

1. The phonic medium of language
2. Phonetics
语音学



(1)The definition of phonetics

(2)Three research fields
(3)Organs of speech
(4)Voiceless sounds
(5)Voiced sounds
(6)Orthographic representations of speech sounds
——
broad and narrow transcriptions
(7)Classification of English speech sounds





A: Definition

B: Classification of English consonants
C: Classification of English vowels
3. Phonology


(1) Relationship between phonology and phonetics


(2) Phone, phonme


(3) Allophone


(4) Some rules in phonology





A: Sequential rules





B: Assimilation rule





C: Deletion rule



(5) Supra-segmental features: stress, tone, intonation






A: stress






B: tone






C: intonation

1. The phonic medium of language
2. Phonetics
语音学



(1)The definition of phonetics






Phonetics:
is
defined
as
the
study
of
the
phonic
medium
of
English
language.
It
concerns with the sound
s that occur in the world’ languages.

(2)Three research fields
三大研究领域

考点名词解释






A:
Articulatory

phonetics
发音语音学
:
the
study
of
the
production
of
speech
sounds.





B:
Acoustic

phonetics
声学语音学
:
the
study
of
physical
properties
(
特征
)of
speech sounds.





C:
Perceptual
phonetics
感知语音学
: refers to the perception of speech sounds.



(3)Organs of speech





Vocal organs: lungs, trachea(
气管
), throat, nose, and mouth.

(4) Voiceless sounds
清音






The sound produced without causing the vibration of the vocal cords(
声带
).
(5) Voiced sounds
浊音




The sound produced with causing the vibration of the vocal cords(
声带
).

(6) Orthographic representations of speech sounds
——
broad and narrow transcriptions







语音正字表
——
宽式和严式标音







A: Broad transcriptions: transcription with the letter symbols only(
一般用于词典和
教学
)






B:
Narrow
transcriptions:
transcription
with
letter-symbols
together
with
the
diacritics(
变音符号
). (
语言学家在语言研究中使用
)







IPA: International Phonetic Alphabet (
国际音标
)
产生于
19
世纪末。


(7)Classification of English speech sounds
语音的分类






A: Definition








a: Consonants: sounds are produced by constricting the vocal tract at some places
to divert, impede or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.







b:
Vowels:
sounds
produced
without
obstruction,
so
no
turbulence
or
a
total
stopping of the air in the oral cavity.

B: Classification of English consonants



a: in terms of the manners of articulation(
发音方式
):




Stops(
爆破音
): pb td kg 6




Fricatives(
摩擦音
): /f/ /v/

/θ/ /?/

/s/ /z/

/
?
/ /
?
/

h/ /r/ 8




Affricatives(
塞擦音
): /t
?
/ /d
?
/




Liquids(
清音
): /l/ /r/




Nasals(
鼻音
): /m,n,η/





Glides(
滑音
): /w j/





b: in terms of place of articulation(
发音部位
)





bilabials(
双唇音
): /p b m w/





labiodentals(
唇齿音
): /f v/





dentals(
齿音
):

/?//θ/






alveolars(
齿龈音
): /t d n l r s/ 6





palatals(
腭音
): /j
?

?
t
?
d / 5





velars(
软腭音
): /k gη/






glottal(
喉音
): /h/


C: Classification of English vowels







a: the position of the tone in mouth: front, central, back,







b: the openness of the mouth: closed semi-closed semi-open and open.







c: the shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded








d: the length of the vowels: tense and lax

or

long and short




3. Phonology


(1) Relationship between phonology and phonetics





Similarity: Both concerned with the speech sounds.





Differences: Approach and Focus.

















Phonetics: general nature, it is interested in all human languages.
















Phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and how sounds convey
meanings.


(2) Phone, Phoneme
考点




Phone:
It
is
a
basic
unit
of
phonetic
study,
a
minimal
sound
segment
that
human
speech can produce. But does not necessarily distinguish meaning.



Phoneme:
It
is
a
basic
unit
of
phonological
study.
It
is
an
abstract
collection
of
phonetic features which can distinguish meaning.

(3)Allophone:
The
different
realizations
of
the
same
phoneme
in
different
phonetic
environment are called allophones .
（同一个音位在不同的语音环境中的实现
方式被称为音位的音位变体）













（
1
）
complementary distribution: when two or more allophones of the same
phoneme do not distinguish meaning and occur in different phonetic environments, then
the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.(
当同一个音位的两个或两个
以上的音位变体不区别意义，
并且出现在不同的语音环境中，
那么他们被称作处于互补分布
)

（
2
）
Free variation:
如果两个音素出现在同一 个相同的语音环境中，并不区
别意义，
即用一个音素去替换另一个音素不产生新词，
仅 仅产生同一个词的不同读音。
那么
这两个音素就可被视为自由变体。

（
3
）
Phonemic contrast:
语音相似的音如果 是区别性音位，那么可以说他们
形成了一个音位对立。如
“k”
和
“g”在
cut
和
gut
是两个不同的音位，这两个词除了出现在同
一 位置上的一个音外，
其余的音都一样，
因此这两个词就构成了最小对立体
minima l pairs
。

音位对立指的是能够造成意义差别的语音差别，比如
ma te
和
late
，

每一个
单词的第一个辅音都能造成音位差别，因此形成音位对立。



最小对立体就是两个对立的音位只有一个语音特征不同，其他语音特征都相
同。比如
pate
和
bate
中的
[p]
和
[b]
，都是辅音、都是爆破音、都是双唇音，但有一点不一
样，前者是清辅音，后者是浊辅音。
< br>相反，
[m]
和
[p]
就不能形成最小对立体，因为它们虽然都是辅音 、都是唇音，
但至少有两个语音特征不同：除了清浊不同外，一个是鼻音，一个是爆破音。


(4) Some rules in phonology
音位学的一些规则




A: the sequential rules






There are rules to govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, and
these rules are called sequential rules.
某一特定语言的语言模式 是受规则支配的，
这就叫做序列规则。例如：如果一个单词的以
L
开头，那后面接的必须是元音。

B: the assimilation rule
同化规则




同化指一个音具有了临近音的 一部分或者全部特征的这一过程，
包括鼻化，
齿化，
鄂
化。
同化规则 通过
“
拷贝
”
序列音位的一个特征来将一个音同化为另一个，
从而使 两个音相似。
相邻近的同化多半是由发音或者生理过程引起的。我们说话时，倾向于增加发音的舒适度，
这种懒惰的倾向可能会被规律化，
作为语言的规则。
例如：
[I:]
在
bean green team
单词中，
[I:]
会被鼻音化。

C: deletion rule
省略规则

省略规则告诉我们在什么时候省略一个语音，
虽然这个 音在正字法上是仍有体现。
例如：
g
在单词
sign
，
d esign
中是不发音的，但在完整的
signature
和
designation
中的
g
是发音
的。


(5). supra-segmental features: stress, tone and intonation
超切分特征：重音，音调，
语调







A:
单词和句子的重音，重音可以区分意义。
'digest n.
摘要

di'gest v.
消化










Stress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.






B:
音调是由声带
vocal cord
的不同震动引起的。







C:
语调涉及出现的升降模式，每个模式都应用于相对一致的意义。




注意点：

1.

Speech is more basic than writing
的原因：

A: linguistic evolution’ view, speech is prior to writing.

B: in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing (amount of
information conveyed)
C: native speakers acquire their mother tongue by speech.
D: spoken language reveal more true features of human speech.

2.

phone
与
phoneme
区别

A phone is phonetic unit or segment, the speech sound we hear and produce during
linguistic communication are all phones.
A
phoneme
is
not
a
particular
sound,
which
is
represented
or
realized
by
a
certain
phone in a certain phonetic context.
Allophones: clear l and dark l are allophones of the phoneme l.

al vowels
基本元音

英国音位学家

Daniel Jones




Chapter 5




Semantics







1. Definition

1.
命名论
The naming theory




Proposed
by
the
ancient
Greek
scholar
Plato
.
According
to
this
theory,
the
linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be
labels of the objects they stand for
, so words are just names or labels for things.
(
缺
点：仅限于名词
)

2.
意念论
The conceptualist view

Ogden and Richards


It
holds
that
there
is
no
direct
link
between
a
linguistic
form
and
what
it
refers
to;
rather,
in
the
interpretation
of
meaning
they
are
linked
through
the
mediation
of
concepts
in the mind.

3.
语境论
Conceptualism



It’s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to

observable

contexts
.
Here are two kinds of context:
the situational and the linguistic
context.

4.
行为主义论
Behaviorism



It refers to the attempted to defin
e the meaning of a language form as the” situation in
which
the
speaker
utters
it
and
the
response
it
calls
forth
in
the
hearer”.
This
theory
somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the
psychological response
.


2. Lexical meaning:
Sense
: it is concerned with
inherent meaning
of linguistic form; it is the collection of
all features of linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.

Reference
:
it
means
the
linguistic
form
refers
to
the
real,
physical
world
.
It
deals
with
the
relationship
between
the
linguistic
element
and
the
non-linguistic
world
of
experience.


3. Main sense relations
1.
同义词
Synonymy


It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close
in meaning are called synonyms.

(1)
Dialectal
synonyms
—
synonyms used in different regional dialects
（方言）

British


America
Autum


fall
Flat





apartment
(2)
Stylistic
synonyms--- Synonyms differing in style
（文体）

Old man daddy father male parent
(3)Synonyms that different in their
emotive
or
evaluative
meaning
（情感）

Collaborator VS Accomplice
(4)
Collocational
synonyms
（搭配）




Accuse VS Charge
（
accuse…of; charge…with
）




Rotten tomatoes VS Addled eggs
(5)
Semantically
different synonyms
（语义）




Amaze VS Astound

2.
多义词
Polysemy


It
refers
to different words may
have
the
same
or
similar meaning,
the same
one
word
may have more than one meaning.
Ball:
1,
a
round
object
used
in
game.
2.
a
large
formal
social
event
at
which
people
dance.


3.
同音
(
形
)
异义
Homonymy


It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e,
different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.

1.
Homophones

同音异义

It refers to two words are identical in sound. e.g. rain/reign.

2.
Homographs

同形异义

It refers to two words are identical in form .e.g. tear v./tear n.

3.
Complete homonyms
同形同音

It refers to words that are both identical in sound and spelling. e.g. tear v./tear n.

6.
上下义关系
Hyponymy


It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more
specific word. the word which is more general in meaning is called superordinate, and the
more specific words are called its hyponyms.

Superordinate: animal
Subordinate: cat, dog, tiger, lion, wolf, elephant, fox, bear,


7.
反义词
Antonymy


It’s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on dif
ferent dimension.

a)

gradable:
等级反义词

old-young
b)

complementary
：互补反义词

male-female
c)

relational:
关系

father-son buy-sell

4. Sentence sense relations:
1. X is
synonymous
with Y
（同义）

Eg. He is a bachelor all his life.



He never married all his life.
2.

X is
inconsistent
with Y
（不一致）

Eg. John is married



John is a bachelor.
3.

X
entails
Y
（附属）

Eg. He has been to France.



He has been to Europe.
4.

X
presuppose
Y
（
Y
是
X
的先决条件）

Eg. John’s bike needs reparing.




John has a bike.
5.

X is a
contradiction
（
X
是一个矛盾句）

Eg. My unmarried sister is married to a bachelor.
6.

X is semantically
anomalous
.
（语义异常）

Eg. The table has bad intensions.


5. Analysis of meaning
1. Componential Analysis
成分分析法
----
分析词汇抽象意义




It’s
a
way
proposed
by the
structural semanticists
to
analyze word meaning
.
This
approach is based upon the belief that meaning of a word can be
dissected
into meaning
components, called
semantic features
.

Eg. Man= Adult+Male+Animate+Human

2. Predication Analysis
述谓结构分析
(
由
British Linguist

提出
)


It’s a new approach for sentential mean
ing analysis. Predication is usually considered
an important common category shared by propositions, questions, commands ect. (
通过
对论元
argument
和谓语
predicate
的分析，
达到对句子意义进行分析的许多模式中的一种
.)
3.
先设前提
Presupposition




It’s a semantic relationship or logical connection.
A presupposes B.

4.
蕴涵
Entailment




Entailment
can
be
illustrated
by
the
following
tow
sentences
in
which
sentence
A
entails sentence B.




A: Mark married a blonde heiress.




B: Mark married a blonde.


第
6
章
pragmatics
本章要点：

1. speech act theory


言语行为的理论

2. cooperative principle and its maxins


合作原则及其准则

3. Gricean theory of conventional implicature


格莱斯会话含义理论



本章考点：

语用学的定义；

语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（发话行为、行 事行
为和取效行为）
；

合作原则。实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。


本章内容索引：

1
．
Pragmatics

Definition
Pragmatics & semantics

Context
Sentence meaning vs utterance meaning
2
．

Speech act theory

Austin’s model of speech acts

Searl’s classification of speech acts

Indirect speech acts
3
．

Principle of conversion






Cooperative principle and its maxins





Violation of the maxins
4
．

Conversational implicature





Definition






Characteristics of conversational implicative








Calculability







Cancellability







Non- detachability







Non-conventionality

5
．

Cross-cultural pragmatics failure


1
．
Pragmatics

Definition
It
is
the
study
of
speakers
of
a
language
use
sentences
to
effect
successful
communication.
Pragmatics & semantics

If the context was taken into the study of meaning, then the study calls pragmatics.
Context


A: Definition:

It
is
generally
considered
as
the
knowledge that
shared

by
the
speaker
and
hearer.
B: Significance:
It
determines
the
speaker’s
use
of
language
and
the
hearer’s
interpretation
of
what is said to him. With context, the communication would achieve satisfactory result.
Sentence meaning vs Utterance meaning
句子意义和话语意义









Sentence meaning:
abstract
and
de-contextualized
.








Utterance
meaning:
concrete

and
context

dependent
,
and
based
on
sentence meaning.

2
．

Speech act theory

Austin’s
model of speech acts
A:
An
locutionary

act(
言内行为
)
：
an
act
of
uttering
words,
phrases,
clauses.
Literal
meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.
B: An
illocutionary
act(
言外行为
)
：
an act of expressing the speaker’s
intention
.
C:
An
perlocutionary

act(
言后行为
)
：
an
act
of
performed
by
or
resulting
from
saying something; the
consequence
or
change

brought about
by the utterance;

Searl’s(
瑟尔
)
classification of speech acts
A:
Representatives
(
阐述类
):
stating

or
describing
,
saying
something
what
the
speaker
believes
to
be
true
.
陈述，相信，发誓

Eg:
I
swear
I
have
never
seen
the
man
before.
B:
directives
(
指令类
)
：
Trying to
get
the
hearer
to do something.

advise
，
ask
，
beseech
，command
，
demand
，
order
，
req uest
，
tell
，
urge
。


Eg
：
open the door!
C:
Commissives
(
承诺类
)
：

committing
the speaker himself to some future course
of action.

commit
，< br>consent
，
guarantee
，
offer
，
pledge
，
promise
，
refuse
，
thr eaten
。


Eg
：
I promise to come!
D:
Expressives
(
表达类
)
：
expressing
the
feeling

or
attitude

towards
an existing
state. apologize
，
boast
，
congrat ulate
，
deplore
，
regret
，
thank
，
welcome

Eg
：
I am sorry for the mess I have made.
E:
Declarations
(
宣告类
)
：
bring about
immediate
change
by saying something.

appoint
，
bless
，
christen
，
declare
，
name
，
nomi nate
，
resign
Eg: I fire you.

Indirect speech acts (
developed by
Searl)
Two speech acts:
The primary: speaker’s goal of communication

The second: means by which he achieves his goal.

3
．

Principle of conversion






Cooperative principle
and its
maxins

(Paul Grice)






A: the maxim of
quantity
量的准则
: (you are what you say)







Make
your
contribution
informative
as
required,
not
more
informative
than
required.
B: the maxim of
quality
质的准则
:
Tautologies
(
意思重复
)


Do not say something you believe is false, or something is lake of evidence.
C: the maxim of
relation
关系准则
:



Be relevant.
D: the maxim of
manner
方式准则
:



Avoid obscurity, ambiguity, be brief and orderly.






Violation of the maxims
通过实例分析违反准则。


4
．

Conversational implicature





Definition






Characteristics of conversational implicative
?

Cancellability/defeasibility
This means that an
implicature can be cancelled
. The feature allows the speaker
to imply something and then deny that implicature.

A: Let's have a drink.
B: It's not one o'clock yet. (implying we can drink after one o'clock)
A: I didn't say that you could drink after one o'clock. I said that you couldn't drink
before. (the implicature disappears)
?

Non-detachability
This means that an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what is said,
not to linguistic form. Therefore implicatures cannot be detached from an utterance
simply by changing the words for synonyms or in other words by
relexicalization
or
reformulation
.
For
example,
if
everyone
knows
that
Bob
is
an
idiot,
saying

is
a
genius
to
convey
the
opposite
meaning

is
terribly
foolish,
he
can
choose
any
of
the
following synonymous expressions to maintain the same implicature:
a) Bob is a mental prodigy.
b) Bob is an exceptionally clever human being.
c) Bob is an enormous intellect.