gym是什么意思Chronemics

2021年1月19日发(作者：goodluck什么意思)
Chronemics
Chronemics
is the study of the use of time in
nonverbal

communication
.
The
way
we
perceive
time
,
structure
our
time
and
react
to
time
is
a
powerful
communication
tool,
and
helps
set
the
stage
for
the
communication
process.
Across
cultures
, time perception plays a large role in the nonverbal
communication
process.
Time
perceptions
include
punctuality
,
willingness
to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles, daily
agendas, speed of speech, movements and how long people are willing to
listen.
Time can also be used as an indicator of status. For example, in most
companies the boss can interrupt progress to hold an impromptu meeting
in the middle of the work day, yet the average worker would have to make
an
appointment
to
see
the
boss.
The
way
different
cultures
perceive
time
can influence communication as well.
Cultures
are
usually
put
into
two
time
system
categories:
monochronic

and
polychronic
.
Monochronic and Polychronic Time
Monochronic and polychronic time systems are two terms used to refer to
time and its influence on society.
Monochronic Time
A monochronic time system means that things are done one at a time and
time is segmented into precise, small units. Under this system time is
scheduled, arranged and managed.
The
United States
is considered a monochronic
society
. This perception
of
time
is
learned
and
rooted
in
the
Industrial
Revolution
,
where

life required the labor force to be on hand and in place at an appointed
hour
a
precious
resource
not
to
be
wasted
or
taken
lightly.

buy
time,
save
time, spend time and make time. Our time can be broken down into years,
months,
days,
hours,
minutes,
seconds
and
even
milliseconds.
We
use
time
to
structure
both
our
daily
lives
and
events
that
we
are
planning
for
the
future.
We
have
schedules
that
we
must
follow:
appointments
that
we
must
go
to
at
a
certain
time,
classes
that
start
and
end
at
certain
times,
work
schedules that start and end at certain times, and even our favorite TV
shows, that start and end at a certain time.”
[1]

As communication scholar
Edward T. Hall

wrote regarding the American’s
viewpoint
of
time
in
the
business
world,
“the
schedule
is
sacred.”
Hall
says
that
for
monochronic
cultures,
such
as
the
Amer
ican
culture,
“time
is
tangible”
and
viewed
as
a
commodity
where
“time
is
money”
or
“time
is wasted.” The result of this perspective is that Americans and other
monochronic cultures, such as the German and Swiss, place a paramount
value on schedules, tasks
and “getting the job done.” These cultures
are committed to regimented schedules and may view those who do not
subscribe to the same perception of time as disrespectful.
Monochronic
cultures
include
Germany
,
Canada
,
Switzerland
,
United
States
,
and
Scandinavia
.
Polychronic Time
Main article:
Polychronicity

A
polychronic time system
is a system where several things can be done
at once, and a more fluid approach is taken to scheduling time. Unlike
Americans
and
most
northern
and
western
European

cultures,
Latin
American

and
Arabic
cultures use the polychronic system of time.
These
cultures
are
much
less
focused
on
the
preciseness
of
accounting
for
each and every moment. As Raymond Cohen notes, polychronic cultures are
deeply
steeped
in
tradition
rather
than
in
tasks
—
a
clear
difference
from
their
monochronic
counterparts.
Cohen
notes
that

societies
have
all
the
time
in
the
world.
The
arbitrary
divisions
of
the
clock
face
have little saliency in cultures grounded in the cycle of the seasons,
the invariant pattern of rural life, and the calendar of religious
festivities
Instead, their culture is more focused on relationships, rather than
watching the clock. They have no problem being “late” for an event if
they
are
with
family or
friends,
because
the
relationship
is
what
really
matters. As a result, polychronic cultures have a much less formal
perception
of
time.
They
are
not
ruled
by
precise
calendars
and
schedules.
Rather, “cultures that use the polychronic time system often schedule
multiple appointments simultaneously so keeping on schedule is an
impossibility.”
[2]

Polychronic cultures include
Saudi Arabia
,
Egypt
,
Mexico
,
New Orleans
,
Philippines
,
Pakistan
,
India
, and many in
Africa
.
Predictable patterns between cultures with differing time
systems
Monochronic People
do one thing at a time
concentrate on the job
take time commitments (deadlines,
schedules) seriously
are low-context and need information
committed to the job
adhere religiously to plans
Polychronic People
do many things at once
are highly distractible and
subject to interruptions
consider an objective to be
achieved, if possible
are high-context and already have
information
are committed to people and human
relationships
change plans often and easily
are concerned about not disturbing
are more concerned with those who
others; follow rules of privacy and
are closely related than with
consideration
privacy
show great respect for private
property; seldom borrow or lend
emphasize promptness
are accustomed to short-term
relationships
Co-Cultural Perspectives on Time
While the clash between the monochronic and polychronic perceptions of
time
can
rifle
the
best
of
intentions
in
international
settings,
similar
challenges can occur within a co-culture. In the United States, the
Hawaiian
culture provides an example of how co-cultures can clash. Two
time systems exist in
Hawaii
, whe
re “the
Polynesians
live somewhere
between two time systems: Haole time and Hawaiian time. When you hear
someone say “See you
at two o’clock
haole time,” that
means that they
will se
e you at precisely two o’clock. But if you hear someone say, “I
will be there at two o’clock Hawaiian time” then the message has an
entirely
different
meaning.
This
is
because
Hawaiian
time
is
very
lax
and
basically means “when you get there.”
[2]
Within the Native American
borrow and lend things often and
easily
base promptness on the
relationship
have strong tendency to build
lifetime relationships
community,
the
same
relaxed
concern
for
punctuality
is
dominant.
Comments
like

on
Indian
time,
as
usual
is
commonly
heard
at
many
community
events.
Elders
give
calming
reassurance
that
things

happen
when
they
happen
there is a reason behind it all, even if it might not be apparent at the
moment. Moreover, it is a common vernacular for individuals orginating
from
polychronic
areas
that
are
inhabiting
a
monochronic
enviornment,
to
joke about their laxed chronal habits- humoursly saying comments like,

Time Orientations
The
way
an
individual
perceives
time
and
the
role
time
plays
in
their
lives
is
a
learned
perspective.
As
discussed
by
Alexander
Gonzalez
and
Phillip
Zimbardo,
the values and needs of
his
society
(Guerrero, DeVito
& Hecht, 1999,
p.
227).
There are four basic psychological time orientations:
1.

Past

2.

Time-line

3.

Present

4.

Future

Each orientation affects the structure, content, and urgency of
communication (Burgoon, 1989). The
past
orientation has a hard time
developing
the
notion
of
elapsed
time
and
these
individuals
often
confuse
present and past happenings as all in the same. People oriented with
time-line cognitivity are often detail oriented and think of everything
in linear terms. These individuals also often have difficulty with
comprehending
multiple
events
at
the
same
time.
Individuals
with
a
present
orientation
are
mostly
characterized
as
pleasure
seekers
who
live
for
the
moment and have a very low risk aversion. Those individuals who operate
with
future

orientation
are
often
thought
of
as
being
highly
goal
oriented
and focused on the broad picture.
The
use
of
time
as
a
communicative
channel
can
be
a
powerful,
yet
subtle,
force in face-to-face
interactions
. Some of the more recognizable types
of interaction that use time are:
?

Regulating interaction:
This is shown to aid in the orderly
transition
of
conversational
turn-taking.
When
the
speaker
is
opening
the floor for a response, they will pause. However, when no response
is desired, the speaker will talk a faster pace with minimal pause.
(Capella, 1985)
?

Expressing intimacy:
As relationships become more intimate,
certain changes are made to accommodate the new relationship status.
Some of the changes that are made include lengthening the time spent
on
mutual
gazes,
increasing
the
amount
of
time
doing
tasks
for
or
with
the other
person and
planning for
the
future
by making plans to spend
more time together (Patterson, 1990).
Affect management:
The onset of powerful emotions can cause a
stronger
affect,
ranging
from
joy
to
sorrow
or
even
to
embarrassment.
Some of the behaviors associated with negative affects include
decreased
time
of
gaze
and
awkwardly
long
pauses
during
conversations.
When
this
happens,
it
is
common
for
the
individuals
to
try
and
decrease
any negative affects and subsequently strengthen positive affects
(Edelman & Iwawaki, 1987).
Evoking Emotion:
Time can be used to evoke emotions in an
interpersonal relationship by communicating the value of the
relationship. For example, when someone who you have a close
relationship
with
is
late,
you
may
not
take
it
personally,
especially
if that is characteristic of them. However, if it is a meeting with
a total stranger, their disrespect for the value of your time may be
taken
personally
and
could
even
cause
you
to
display
negative
emotions
if and when they do arrive for the meeting.
Facilitating service and task goals:
Professional settings can
sometimes give rise to interpersonal relations which are quite
different
from
other

interactions.
For
example,
the
societal
norms
that
dictate
minimal
touch
between
strangers
are
clearly
altered
if one member of the dyad is a doctor, and the environment is that of
a hospital examination room.
?

?

?

Chronemics: Culture and Diplomacy
The Effect of Cultural Roots on Time Orientation
Just as monochronic and polychronic cultures have different time
perspectives,
understanding
the
time
orientation
of
a
culture
is
critical
to becoming better able to successfully handle
diplomatic
situations.
Americans, for instance have a future orientation. Hall indicates that
for Amer
icans “tomorrow is more important