tags是什么意思二十四谬误中英对照

2021年1月19日发(作者：完成)
第一部分

考试范围内

本次考试考第一部分列举的前
15
个。后面第二部分列举的仅供以后
学习参考。

(
一
)
了解基本逻辑，避免常见错误

要了解基本逻辑错误一定不能错
过一篇英文小品文
Love Is A Fallacy(
作者
Max Shulman)
，这里仅列
举出十种最常见的逻辑错误。




1.
草率前提

(Dicto Simpliciter)



例如：
Women are on average not as strong as men and less
able
to
perform
well
politically.
Therefore,
women
can't
pull
their
weight in government work.



点评：
虽然女性确实在政界担任较少工作，
但这不意味着女性群
体中所有的人都是这样。




2.
过度概化

(Hasty Generalization)



例如：
McDonald's and KFC offer foods with little nutrition, and
thus we cannot expect any fast food restaurant to provide us with
nutritious foods.



点评：两个个例不足以推出一个真理。




3.
因果颠倒

(Post Hoc)



例如：
Most young criminals watch violent movies before they
commit
their
crimes;
obviously,
violent
movies
lead
to
juvenile
delinquency.



点评：
甲事情发生在乙事情之前，
这并不代表着先发 生的甲事情
就是后发生的乙事情的原因。




4.
矛盾前提

(Contradictory Premises)



例如：
If God can do everything, can he make a stone so heavy
that he can't carry?



点评：前提条件中就有相互矛盾的地方，结论当然是错误的。




5.
感性论证

(Ad Misericordiam)



例如：
Think of all the poor, starving African children! How could
rich countries be so cruel as not to help them?



点评：抒情是不能当作论证的。




6.
错误类比

(False Analogy)



例如：
Young
children
are
like
flowers---flowers
should
stay
away from terrible weather to grow, so children need to get rid of
everything negative.



点评：孩子和花朵的区别太大。成长的过程也太复杂。最好不要
用这两者来类比。




7.
虚假假设

(Hypothesis Contrary to Fact)



例如：
If TV were not invented, today people would never have
such wonderful entertainment brought by TV.



点评：
因为电视已经被发明了，
对于过去的否定假设 后所得出的
结论都是逻辑上的错误结论。




8.
无关转移

(Red Herring)



例如：
Many people say we need to exploit the outer space, a
point
which
I
believe
is
wrong,
because
there
are
so
many
poor
people on Earth who hardly make ends meet.



点评：有一个问题没解决并不代表着另一个问题不值得解决。




9.
从众错误

(Bandwagon)



例如：
Everyone says it is justified to learn a second language
so we must learn one.




点评：
人人都说，
或者大多数都说，
这并不意味着该观点正确。




10.
滑坡谬误

(Slippery slope)



例如：
If we don't care about the environment, the world will die
in 50 years.



点评：从环境问题到世界灭亡，中间有无数环节未提供论证。

Examples of Slippery Slope
1.

they'll be charging $$40,000 a semester!
2.

Once the government sends in a few troops, it will then send in
thousands to die.
3.

over you.
4.

start banning one form of literature, they will never stop. Next
thing you know, they will be burning all the books!

11. appeal to emotion

You
attempted
to
manipulate
an
emotional
response
in
place
of
a
valid
or
compelling argument.

Appeals
to
emotion
include
appeals
to
fear,
envy,
hatred,
pity,
pride,
and
more.

It's
important to note that sometimes a logically coherent argument may inspire emotion or
have
an
emotional
aspect,
but
the
problem
and
fallacy
occurs
when
emotion
is
used
instead of a logical argument, or to obscure the fact that no compelling rational
reason
exists for one's position. Everyone, bar sociopaths, is affected by emotion, and so appeals
to emotion are a very common and effective argument tactic, but they're ultimately flawed,
dishonest, and tend to make one's opponents justifiably emotional.
Example:
Luke
didn't
want
to
eat
his
sheep's
brains
with
chopped
liver
and
brussel
sprouts, but his father told him to think about the poor, starving children in a third world
country who weren't fortunate enough to have any food at all.

12
. ad hominem
,personal attack
人身攻击

You
attacked
your
opponent's
character
or
personal
traits
in
an
attempt
to
undermine their argument.

Ad
hominem
attacks
can
take
the
form
of
overtly
attacking
somebody,
or
more
subtly
casting doubt on their character or personal attributes as a way to discredit their argument.
The
result
of
an
ad
hom
attack
can
be
to
undermine
someone's
case
without
actually
having to engage with it.
Example:
After
Sally
presents
an
eloquent
and
compelling
case
for
a
more
equitable
taxation
system,
Sam
asks
the
audience
whether
we
should
believe
anything
from
a
woman who isn't married, was once arrested, and smells a bit weird.

第七条：诉诸虚伪

13. loaded question
含沙射影

You
asked
a
question
that
had
a
presumption
built
into
it
so
that
it
couldn't
be
answered without appearing guilty.

Loaded question fallacies are particularly effective at derailing rational debates because of
their
inflammatory
nature
-
the
recipient
of
the loaded
question
is
compelled
to
defend
themselves and may appear flustered or on the back foot.
Example:
Grace and Helen were both romantically interested in Brad. One day, with Brad
sitting within earshot, Grace asked in an inquisitive tone whether Helen was having any
problems with a drug habit.
14
. appeal to authority
诉诸权威

You said that because an authority thinks something, it must therefore be true.

It's important to note that this fallacy should not be used to dismiss the claims of experts,
or
scientific
consensus.
Appeals
to
authority
are
not
valid
arguments,
but
nor
is
it
reasonable
to
disregard
the
claims
of
experts
who
have
a
demonstrated
depth
of
knowledge
unless
one
has
a
similar
level
of
understanding
and/or
access
to
empirical
evidence.
However
it
is,
entirely
possible
that
the
opinion
of
a
person
or
institution
of
authority is wrong; therefore the authority that such a person or institution holds does not
have any intrinsic bearing upon whether their claims are true or not.
Example:
Not able to defend his position that evolution 'isn't true' Bob says that he knows
a scientist who also questions evolution (and presumably isn't a primate).

15
窃取论点
. begging the question

You
presented
a
circular
argument
in
which
the
conclusion
was
included
in
the
premise.

This
logically
incoherent
argument
often
arises
in
situations
where
people
have
an
assumption that is very ingrained, and therefore taken in their minds as a given. Circular
reasoning is bad mostly because it's not very good.
Example:
The word of Zorbo the Great is flawless and perfect. We know this because it
says so in The Great and Infallible Book of Zorbo's Best and Most Truest Things that are
Definitely True and Should Not Ever Be Questioned.




第二部分

以下完整版留着资料用。


第一条：稻草人

1. strawman/straw man

You misrepresented someone's argument to make it easier to attack.

By exaggerating, misrepresenting, or just completely fabricating someone's argument, it's
much easier to present your own position as being reasonable, but this kind of dishonesty
serves to undermine honest rational debate.
Example:
After
Will
said
that
we
should
put
more
money
into
health
and
education,
Warren responded by saying that he was surprised that Will hates our country so much
that he wants to leave it defenceless by cutting military spending.
第二条：错误归因

2. false cause

You presumed that a real or perceived relationship between things means that one
is the cause of the other.

Many people confuse correlation (things happening together or in sequence) for causation