tough是什么意思语篇分析

2021年1月19日发(作者：max什么意思)



































语篇分析




































王葆仁




文章的组 织结构我们称为章法，
研究文章结构及其规则自然叫做章法分析。
现代人说话和

写文章基本上是一致的，所以英语统称为语篇（
text / discourse
）
,
所谓语篇，就是连贯的话
语。意思相关的句子组成 一个较大的单位——句群（
sentence
group
）
,
句群 内各个句子密切
衔接，主要靠内在的语义关系（时间、地点、条件、因果、对比、一般与个别，等等）< br>，即
所谓意合法，
连接词仅起辅助作用，
况且连接词往往是多义的，
确 定其意义还得靠句际关系
分析。


例如：
1. All the time, the snow outside kept falling
…
The village was unrecognizable. Everything
was covered in snow. One could see only the contours of the roofs and the candles in the windows.
(
因果关系
) 2. She shrugged her shoulders and moved away. Outside, birds were calling to one
another excitedly. It was early summer. It was summer again. The world renewed itself and was
beautiful. (
时间和处所
) 3. She moved slightly, and her eyes turned toward the window. The white
rain splashed down
…
(
行为与对象
) 4. Working in wood calls for great manual skill. The ordinary
saw itself is not easy to handle.(
由一般到特殊
) 5. This chair is a bit wobbly. Well, none of the
furniture is very good.(
由特殊到一般
) 6. The ordinary hand drill is not easy to use
；
this electric
type is something any novice can handle.(
对比
)
从形式上看，这些句群均属并列结构。



说话和写文章，
要意思连贯，
不能前言不搭后语，
于是便采用关键性词语的重复作为加强
句群内聚力 的手段。例如：
The test of all knowledge is experiment. Experiment is the sole judge
of scientific
“
truth
”
. But what is the source of knowledge? Where do the laws that are to be tested
come from? Experiment, itself, helps to produce these laws, in the sense that it gives us hints. But
also
needed
is
imagination
to
create
from
these
hints
the
great
generalization
…
This
imaginary
process is so difficult
…

词语重复不限于同一个词，
范围较广，
包括同根词、
同义词、类义词


（上下文同义词）
、上义词替代下义词、定义与词语的替换，等等，与此同时还伴随 有限定
词。
代词是避免重复的一种修词手段，
可看作特种形式的重复。
省略同 样是句子联系的一种

手段，因为，在理解省略句时，必然要回想到前面的句子，可以说是无形的重复。例如，
1.
Here
is
an
urgent
message.
It
is
for
visiting
salesman
Herbert
Black.
Will
Mr
Black
please
contact the third floor supervisitor. She will be waiting for him at the inquiry desk.

2. He
examined the car. The front was slightly damaged.
从形式上看，这类句群属于链式结构。


有些语句看似省略，
其实 不是，
有的是为了强调而从前句分离出来，
有的是为了引出后话
而分离出来作为铺垫， 有的则是为了补充而增加的。例如

1 Those people at the table next to
them are obviously Jews. Drinking and laughing ,side by side with the Gestapo. 2. He stopped.
Quivering. Leaning against a tree, he listened. (quivering
表示

stopped
的状况，本属于前句，
但又是
leaning
的原因，与前后两句都有关联，因而独立出来起搭桥作用。
)
3.
…
she
had
become an old woman. Old. It was a difficult concept to grasp. (
显然，
old
是附加的，不单是为
了强调，而且是为了引出后面的

议论。
old
虽然是形容词，但在文中却暗中转化为名词的
意义，形成

old
–
it
–
concept
这样的判断链。如果没有它，
it
就无所指，可见，补加也是过
度的手段。此类句子，按照传统句法观点，并非句子，所以 叫做非句（
non-sentence
）或者
书写句（
graphology sentence
）
。非句的形式多种多样，主要是单个分词、分词主谓结构、形
容词 、副词、介词短语、以及名词，等等。非句的出现纯是文学作品出于修辞的考虑，前后
两部分皆有隶属关 系，
后者是前者谓语的一部分，
合起来才是一个句法上完整的句子，
所以
前后 部分看作是超句统一体（
super-sentence unity
）
。

名词独立为句可看作是名物化句。人类语言由以名词为主发展为以动词为主，动词为句
子核心， 没有动词作谓语，就不称其为句子。然而，在现代英语中，动词在逐步虚化，尤其
是非实义动词，
在取消一些形式结构
（如

there be ,it is / was
）之后，
便出现一些名词单独为
句的情况。在语篇中，名词为句者不少，有的是对前句的补叙、 概括或评判，起表述作用，


可看作述题句（
rheme- sentence
）
。例如

r
had
seated
herself
in
a
chair
beside

the
fireplace
conscious
of
sitting
rather
stiffly.
A
proper
old
lady.
Her
hands
clasped
in
her
lap.






2.
Months
passed
and
she
had
nothing
to
show
for
effort
except
piles
of
notes.
Raw
emotions.
Words. She began another love affair. (
显然，
raw emotions
和
words
是对
notes
的诠释，前面
加上
which were
可与前句合并。
) 3. You are going to know what I knew. Bars and cells and
disgrace. You are going to know the despair I felt all those years.
显然，这三个名词是

what I
knew
的内容。




有些名词句，
其作用在于指出事物的存在，
起铺衬的 作用，
或者用以引出话题，
后叙部分
则是对它的说明。此类句子可看作是主题句（theme-sentence
）
。例如：
1. Heavy

silence.
Byron slumped down, elbow on knees, hands clasped. (
比较

There was a silence. I like this man


at lot, Suza thought ) 2. The wind, the wind. It
’
s frightening to be here in her bed by herself
…

3
．
Strangely enough I feel wonderful. The nap on the plane, and now all this sweet country air.
Poland smells delicious. I never read that in a book.


分词主谓结构在语篇中的作用也是如此，例如：
1. It is someone
’
s father. That much is clear.
He is fatherly. The gray in the head. The puff in the face. The droop in the shoulders. The flab on

the gut. Tears falling. Tears falling. More tears. It seems that he intends to go further along this

salty path
…

句中

tears falling
是带主语的分词独立语，
加上
are / were (
谓语的标志
)
就成为

句子，
这里之所以不 使其成为句，是因为不是在陈述行为如何进行，和名词句一样，也仅是

指出某种现象的存在，
为后叙做铺垫。
2. Shades pulled. Door rocked. Watching the TV. Under a

blanket maybe. Yes, that
’
s right, under a blanket. Her eyes close when he kisses her
…
3. His

brothers were in London, both of them. One married, one living with a girl. They didn
’
t come
home much..
句中分词句表示伴随情况，属于动态。文中之所以不用谓语形式，它不是叙述

的主要内容，而只是表示后续事件发生的背景情况（静态）
。



在语篇中介词短语也可以独立为句，
起补叙作用，
或指出某种状况的存在，
起 铺衬的作用。

例如：
1. Consider a force like gravitation which varies predominantly inversely as the square of

distance, but which is about a billion-billion-billion-billion times stronger. And with another

difference .There are two kinds of
“
matter
”
, which we call positive and negative. 2. Down in the

suds. Feeling sleepy. The phone rings, starting her. Wrapped in a towel, she goes answer.



句际联系，除上述手段外，还可采用其他多种不同的 方式，如过度句，设问句，平行结
构，
等等。
例如：
1. We have already discussed the meaning of the gradient operation. Now we turn
to the meaning of the divergence and curl operation
…
2.
…
Everyone knows the earth is round.


Why is the earth round? That is easy; it is due to gravitation
…
3. There are many other forms of
energy
…
There is radiant energy
…
There is chemical energy
…
Next we come to nuclear
energy
…




一篇文章往往包含若干段 ，
一段说明一个中心意思，
几段合起来说明一层意思，
因此段与
段也是密切联 系着的。
联系手段主要有三种：
段首相呼应，
段尾相对应，
采用过度段。例如：
1. Probably the first reported observation of
…occurred
in 1665
…
Lord

Raylein (11907) made
similar observations about
…
2.
…
Simple saturation alone would have produced only a neutrally
coupled system. The coupling phenomena appearing here show up also in ionphysics contexts
…

3. In t he preceding section / chapter
…
In the next section
…



We see later that
…
Let us turn
now to
…
Let us try to see why. The reason is that
…

等等，不必一一列举。



分析句子有各种各样的方法，
其根据不外三种：
语法、
逻辑和主题。
从这三个不同的角度

对句子进行分析，有助于理解和翻译。例如：
1. The plant absorbed the water. 2. The water is
absorbed by the pla nt.
这两句的逻辑内容一致，但从语法上看，句子的主语不一样：第一句的
主语是
p lant,
宾语是
water
；第二句的主语是
water,
而
plant
为补足语。从逻辑分析上看，
判断的主词都是主语，其后部分 是谓词（以前称系词和宾词）
，行为的主体亦即行为者均为
plant.
从交际上看 ，说话人总是把要告诉别人的事物或想要予以叙述的事物放在句子的首
位，作为判断的起点。这一部分称 为主题或主位（
theme / topic
）
,
而对主题加以论述的部分< br>称为述题或述位（
rheme / comment
）
。
.
新 的信息和逻辑重心通常在述位的末尾。比较：
1 .A
computer
could
solve
these
problems
easily.
2.
These
problems
could
be
solved
easily
by
a
computer.
3.
These
problems
a
computer
could
solve
easily.
再如：
4.
This
subject
we
have
examined
in
an
earlier
chapter,
and
need
not
reconsider.
5.
Everything
that
can
be
done
the
administration has attended to already.
主题不都是主语，
别的成分也可提前作 主题，
但只能出
现在上下文中，如

All I can say is well done, Ria
…
Well done sort of implied that she had won
by trickery.
汉语中，
主题后有 停顿，
不停顿者为主语。
由上述分析可知，
翻译时决不能只按
照语法结构，而 且要考虑逻辑结构以及主题和述题。



从形式上看，
语篇的结构 主要有三种类型：
并列结构、
链式结构和平行结构。并列结构前
面已举例说明，
现介绍链式和平行结构。
直线展开是英语语篇遵循的原则，
也是共同的特点

所谓直线展开，
就是利用词汇手段使前后句紧扣在一起，
向前延伸而形成一个链式结构，类
似汉语古文的推理结构，如；知止而后有定。定而后能静。静而后能安。安而后能虑。虑而

后能得。
（大学章句）作者为使读者容易理解，总是从读者已知信息（作为主题）引导出新
的信息（述题）
，已知信息不总是与主题一致，于是前句的述题变为后句的主题加以陈述。请看英语例句：
1. One of the most widespread uses of the electromagnetic principle is in relays.
These
are
nothing
more
than
magnetically
operated
switches.
Such
switches
could
have
one
contact
(single
pole)
or
many
contacts
(double
pole,
triple
pole,
etc.).
The
contacts
could
be
normally open and are closed by electromagnetic action, or vice versa.

2
…
.By the time he had
put his clothes on, his hands were numbed and he could scarcely hold his shoes. These he could
not put on for fear of waking his parents
…

为了承接前句而将宾语
these
提前，如果将它放在
put
后，则语法上正确，而在构文上就不准确了。可见，在语篇中词序要满足构文的要求。

3. Their writings
…
have the common advantage of presenting an outsider
’
s point of view. Viewing
the scene from a different background, they see national difference of which the native born may
be unaware.
。链式结构体现的是前句的述题转换为后句的主题，如图：

T (1)
——

R (1)










T (2)
——

R(2)










（
R1
与
T2, R2
与
T3
之间应有竖线表示转换）




















T(3)
——

R(3)


如果同一主题相承接，
相当于一个主语多个谓语，
那就是平行结构。
例如：
I am of medium
Height,
supple,
and
well-made.
My
complexion
is
dark,
and
fairly
uniform;
I
have
a
high
and
tolerably broad forehead; eyes dark, small and deep-set, eyebrows dark and bushy, but well shaped.
I
find
it
difficult
to
describe
my
nose
…

All
I
can
say
is
that
it
is
big
rather
than
small,
and
somewhat too long.
另一种是述题相连接，就是主题不同而述题相同（意义相近）
，如：

The
Big Bull Market was dead. Billions of dollar
’
s worth of profits and paper profits had disappeared.
The grocer, the window-cleaner, and the seamstress had lost their capital
…
这两种平行结构可图
解为：
T(1)
——
R(1)





















T(1)
——
R(1)