pugna英语词汇学复习要点(不过就难啊)

2021年1月19日发(作者：不屑一顾)

1.
Motivation
分类
：

onomatopoeic motivation
拟声理据
, morphological motivation

形态理据

, semantic motivation
语义理据
,
etymological motivation

词源理据
.


2.
Types of meaning
:
grammatical ~ & lexical ~; conceptual ~& associative ~(connotative~, stylistic~, affective ~,
collocative ~,)

Associative meaning :
1) associative meaning is the secondary meaning supplemented to the
conceptual meaning. 2)It differs from the conceptual meaning in that it is open-ended and
indeterminated. 3)It is liable to the influence of such factors as culture , experience, religion,
geographical region, class background,education, etc. 4)Associative meaning comprises four types :
connotative, stylistic, affective, and collocative.

3. Polysemy
is a common feature peculiar to all natural language that one word has two or more
senses or meanings. Diachronic approach is an approach to polysemy which studies how a word derived
its different meanings from its primary meaning in the course of time.

4.

同形同音异义关系

Homonymy is one of the features of words that a word is different in meaning from
another, but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling with the
other Homonyms generally fall into three classes: perfect homonyms (same name); homographs
(same spelling) and homophones
（
some sound
）
. Perfect homonyms are those words identical both
in sound and spelling, but different in meaning, e.g. bear /bea/ (n) a large heavy animal; bear /bea/
(v) to put up with. Homographs are the words identical only in spelling but different in sound and
meaning, e.g. saw / / (v) to scatter seeds; sow /sau/ (n) female adult pig. Homophones refer to the
words identical only in sound but different in spelling and meaning, e.g. dear /dia/ (n) a loved person;
deer /dia/ (n) a kind of animal.

5.
同形同音异义词与多义词的区别


Perfect homonyms and polysemants are fully identical with regard to spelling and pronunciation. This
creates the problem of differentiation. The fundamental difference between homonyms and
polysemants lies in the fact that the former refers to different words which happen to share the same
form and the latter is the one and same word which has several distinguishable meanings. One
important criterion is to see their etymology, i.e. homonyms are from different sources whereas a
polysemant is from the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of
development. The second principal consideration is semantic relatedness. The various meanings of a
polysemant are correlated and connected to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree, e. g.
neck (See 6.1 Polysemy) . On the other hand, meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with
one another. In dictionaries, a polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword whereas
homonyms are listed as separate entries.

6.
同义关系

Synonyms
are words which share the same or nearly the same meaning with each other but
different in sound and spelling. There are absolute synonyms and relative synonyms which result from
borrowing, dialects and regional English, figurative and euphemistic use of words, coincidence with
idiomatic expressions. There exists the difference between or among synonyms in terms of their
denotation, connotation or application. Absolute synonyms or complete synonyms are words which are
identical in meaning in all its aspects. Relative synonyms or near-synonyms are similar or nearly the
same in denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.
Sources of Synonyms


1) Borrowing 2)Dialects and regional English 3) Figurative and euphemistic use of words 4)
Coincidence with idiomatic expressions

如何区分同义词？

1Difference in denotation2 Difference in connotation 3 Difference in application
7.

What are the characteristics of antonyms?

1) Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition 2) A word which has more than one
meaning can have more than one antonym. 3) Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. 4) Contrary terms
are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of intenisty, so each has its own corresponding opposite.

8.

上下义关系
:Hyponymy deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.
That is, the meaning
of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. Superordinates refer to
some general words; subordinates denote those more specific words. Hyponymy can be described in
terms of tree-like graphs, with higher-order superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their
status either as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms. For example, horse, dog, pig
are subordinates in relation to animal, but superordinates of mare, hound and boar, Animal itself
becomes a subordinate of creature. And creature in turn becomes

9.

词义变化的种类
There are five types of meaning, changes
: extension, narrowing, degradation,
elevation, and transfer among which extension and narrowing are the most common. Changes in
meaning can be accounted for from extra-linguistic factors (historical reason, class reason, and
psychological reason) and intra-linguistic factors (shortening, the influx of borrowing, and analogy).
10.

词义的扩大

Extension is a process by which a word with a specialized sense is generalized to cover
a broader or less

词义的缩小
Narrowing is a process by which a word of wider meaning acquires a specialized sense
；
词义的升格
Elevation is a process by which a word moves from a derogatory or neutral sense to a
neutral and/or appreciative sense
；

词义的降格
Degradation is a process by which a word of reputation slides into a pejorative use,
；

11.

词义的转移
Transfer is a process by which a word denoting one thing changes to refer to a different
but related thing. Paper serves as an example. This word formerly denoted an African plant papyrus,
which was once used to make paper. In modern times, paper is made from rags, wood, straw and
the like, but the product has retained the same name. There is associated transfer. There are other
kinds of transfer, such as, concrete to abstract, abstract to concrete and transfer of sensation.

12.

语境的种类
:
非语言语境。语言语境：词汇语境和语法语境。
There are two types of contexts:
linguistic
context and extra-linguistic (or non- linguistic context). Extra-linguistic context refers to those
situations and features which are not directly a part of the language in use but which either
contribute in conveying a message or have an influence on language use. Linguistic or
Intra-linguistic context is further subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context. By lexical
context we mean the words that occur together with the word in question. By grammatical context
we mean that the meanings of a word may be influenced by the structure in which it occurs.

13.

语境的作用：
Three major functions of context:
elimination of ambiguity, indication of referents,
provision of clues for inferring word-meaning. Context an be summed up as follows:1) definition 2)
explanation 3) example 4) synonymy 5) Antonymy 6)hyponymy 7) relevant details 8) word
structure

14.

英语习语的特点
The characteristics of idioms include semantic unity and structural stability.

英语习语的分类
According to the criterion of their grammatical functions, we classify them into idioms
nominal in nature, idioms adjectival in nature, idioms verbal in nature, idioms adverbial in nature, and
sentence idioms. The stylistic features are characterized with colloquialisms, slang, and literary
expressions.

英语习语的使用
The use of idioms
involves their stylistic features, rhetorical features , and variations of
idioms.

英语习语的修辞色彩
The rhetorical features of idioms
are represented with phonetic manipulation
( alliteration
头韵法
and rhyme
叠韵
) , lexical manipulation ( reiteration
复用
, repetition
重复
and
juxtaposition
反义词叠用
), figures of speech ( simile
明喻
, metaphor
暗喻
, metonymy
转喻
, synecdoche
借代
, personification
拟人
, euphemism
委婉
)

15.

Metonymy
和
Synecdoche ,
修饰有何区别
?
Both metonymy and synecdoche involve substitution of
names, yet they differ in that the former is a case of using the name of one thing for another closely
associated with it and the latter is that of substituting part for the whole and vice versa.

二
.

串讲内容


第一章


logy
这门课算
哪一种学科的分支
:
Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings
of words.
2. Lexicology
和那些重要
的学科建立了联系
:

1)Morphology 2) Semantics 3) Stylistics 4) Etymology 5) Lexicography

3.
研究
lexicology
的两大方法
:
1) Diachronic approach :
历时语言学
2) Synchronic approach :
共时语言学
e.g. wife
纵观历时语言学的方法论，
woman
词义的变化算是词义变化的哪一种模式？


Woman
的词义的变化算
Narrowing or specialization

4.
What is word ?
词具有哪些特点？词的特点也就是对词的名词解释
。
1) A word is a minimal free form of a
language;2) A sound unity or a given sound 3) a unit of meaning;4) a form that can function alone in
a sentence.
以上词的四个特点也就是词的名词解释


5.
词的分类（
classification of a word
）词根据发音可以分为哪两种词？或者说词根据拼写可以分为哪两类词

1) simple words 2) complex words
单音节词例子：
e.g. Man and fine are simple
多音节词例子：
e.g.
Management, misfortune, blackmailmanagement
可以次划分为
manage
和

–
ment misfortune
可以次划
分为
mis-
和

fortuneblackmail
次划分为
black
和

mail

is the relationship between sound and meaning?



1)There is ‘no logical relationship between the sound and actual thing.e.g. dog. Cat



2)The relationship between them is conventional.


3) In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds.

is relationship between sound and form?

1)The written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written
form should agree with the oral form, such as English language.
2)This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English
3)With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two.

are the great changes that causes illogical relationship or irregularity between
sound and form?
1)

The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does
not have a separate letter tore present each sound in the language so that some letters must do double
duty or work together in combination.
2)

Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and
in some cases the two have drawn far apart.
3)

A third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes.
4)

Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary.

要记住以上四句话中的关键词：




1) influenced by Romans2) Pronunciation changed3) early scribes4) borrowing

9.
你能不能举出外来语对英语发音
,
拼写造成不一致的例子有哪些？
e.g. stimulus (L) ,fiesta (Sp) ,eureka (Gr),
kimono (Jap)
外来语对英语造成的最大的影响就是
‘sound and form ’
不一致。


10.
What is vocabulary?
Vocabulary refers to the total number of the words in a language, but it can
stand for all the words used in a particular historical period. Vocabulary also refers to all the words of a
given dialect, given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person.

11.
What is the classification of words? How to classify words in linguistics?


Three criteria :1) By use of frequency 2) By notion 3) By origin

By use of
frequency
可划分为：
1) The basic word stock 2) Nonbasic word vocabulary

By
notion

可划分为：
1) Content word2) Functional word Content words are also known as notional
words . (Content words
的别称
)Functional words are also known as empty words, or form words.
(Functional words
的别称
)Functional words possesses a characteristic of basic word stock, i.e. stability

are the
characteristics of basic word stock?
1)

All national character2) Stability3) Productivity4) Polysemy5) Collocability
要把握住
‘All national character’
词
,
就是和我们日常生活息息相关的，最普通词


constitutes the larger number among English vocabulary,
content or functional words ?
Answer :
Content words

What is native words? Answer : (1) By origin, English words can be classified into native words and
borrowed words.(2) Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes:
the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus know as Anglo-Saxon words. (3) Words of Anglo-Saxon
origin are small in number ,amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of
the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language

14.
什么叫
borrowed words?
Answer: (1) words taken over from foreign languages are know as
borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms.(2) It is estimated that English borrowings
constitute 80 percent of the modern English vocabulary (3) The English language has vast debts .In any
dictionary some 80% of the entries are borrowed.


第二章：


The Indo-European Language Family It is assumed that the world has approximately 3,000(some put
it5,000)languages ,which can be grouped into roughly 300 language families on the basis of similarities
in their basic word stock and grammar .

1.
‘
Indo-
European’
两大分支：
n set n set

Eastern set: Balto-Slavic, Indo-Iranian, Armenian and Albanian

Western set : Celtic, Italic , Hellenic, Germanic.

In the western Set, Greek is the modern language derived from Hellenic. Celtic
：
Scottish, Irish, Welsh,
Breton The five Romance languages, namely ,Portuguese, Spanish, French, Italian , Rumanian all
belong to the Italic.

The Germanic family consists of the four Northern European Languages: Norwegian ,Icelandic, Danish
and Swedish ,which are generally known as Scandinavian languages. Then there is German,
Dutch ,Flemish and English.
With Vikings’ invasion, many Scandinavian words came into the English
language. It is estimated that at least 900 words of Scandinavian origin have survived in modern
English. Old English has a vocabulary of about 50,000 to 60,000 words. It was a highly inflected
language just like modern German.

2. Modern English began with the establishment of printing in England


古英语最大的模糊性的概念来自于

(scripts )
古英语正因为出现印刷术才打破了

( early scripts)Sound and form
真正达到统一是在什么时期？
.Sound and form reached their concord in ( Modern English period )
如果从词
汇变化的角度而言，
Modern English
又可以细划分为

early period ,modern period.

现代英语早期阶段属于哪一种文化现象的发展时期

Early modern English appeared in the Renaissance

3. Modern English period
有什么样的外来语的进入？

The Latin words swarmed into English in early modern English period
现代英语时期，英语词汇大量丰富还
有另外一个原因是

(colonization)The richness of Modern English in vocabulary also arises from
(Colonization )The English language has evolved from a synthetic language to the present analytic
language

4.
Three main sources of new words :
1)The rapid development of modern science and technology

2)Social, economic and political changes;3)The influence of other cultures and language

5.
Modes of Vocabulary Development



1)creation 2) semantic change 3) borrowing2)Semantic
change
（还包括外来词的
Semantic loans
）
Elevation, degradation, extension, narrowing, transfer
外来
词可以被称作
borrowed words ,
因此
borrowed words are also known as loaned words .
恢复古英语的用词
是美国英语的一大特色
Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English
vocabulary though quite insignificant. This is especially true of American English.
6.
英语从
synthetic language
发展到
present analytical language
是在英语的哪一个阶段完成的？

答案：
Modern English period

7.
在英语发展过程

在哪个阶段出现三语鼎立的现象？
French, Latin, English in Middle English period

8.
Old English
和

Middle English
最
大的
striking distinction
存在于哪一个方面
?
答案：
Old English was a language of full endings, Middle English was one of leveled endings.

9.
文艺复兴时期，哪两种文化得到了 复兴
，这对英语词汇的丰富具有什么样的影响
?
答案：
Greek , Roman culture
10.
某些希腊词被引入到了英语是在什么阶段
?答案：
Modern English


第三章

smallest unit in the English language refers to
(morphemes)


minimal free form
in the English language refers to
(word)


3.
Morphemes :
The minimal meaningful units in a language are known as morphemes. In other words,
the morphemes is the smallest functioning unit in composition of words

4.
Allomorphs :
The alternative morphs are known as allomorphs, morpheme of plurality {-s}
has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, e.g. in cats in bags, matches It can be realized
by the change of an internal vowel as in foot-feet, man-men, goose-geese or by zero morphs as in
deer-deer, fish-fish
5.
what are the types of morphemes ?




答案：
Free morphemes and bound morphemes
。


Free morphemes :
1) Free morphemes are independent of other morphemes and are considered to
be free.2) These morphemes have complete meanings in themselves and can be used as free
grammatical units in sentences. 3) They are identical with root words, as each of them consists of a
single free rootwords ,as each of them consists of a single free root 4) free morphemes are free roots.

bound morphemes:
1) Morphemes which cannot occur as separate words are bound.. 2) They are
bound to other morphemes to form words. 3) Bound morphemes include two types: bound root and
affix

affix
分为两类
:
inflectional and derivational affixes. Inflectional affixes : Affixes attached to the
end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional, thus known as inflectional
morphemes.
Derivational affixes:
1)derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to
create now words.2) Derivational affixes can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.









root :
1) a root is the basic form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity.




2) the root, whether free or bound, generally carries the main component of meaning in a word











3) a ’root is that part of a word
form that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been
removed
stem :
1) a stem may consist of a single root morpheme as in iron or of two root morphemes as in a
compound like handcuff.












































































2) It can be a root morpheme plus one or more affixational morphemes as in mouthful, underestimate.
3) Therefore, a stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added.


第四章
:

1.

在英语中
,
主
要的构词法分
为哪几种
?


答案：有七种
:1) Affixation 2) Compounding 3) conversion 4) shortening 5) clipping 6) acronymy 7)
blending
有三种最常用
: affixation , compounding and conversion
2.

由
专 有名词变为普通名词是词义变化的哪一种
?
答案：
Extension

3.

由普通名词变为专有名词是词义变化的哪一种模式
?
答案：< br>Narrowing

4.

Affixation
又被称为什么
?
它分为哪两类？
答案：
Affixation is also known as derivation Affixation falls
into two subclasses : prefixation and suffixation
要点
:
有哪些前缀属于什么样的类别
:a-, non, ir :
negative prefixes de- , dis- (
既属于
negative ,
也属于
reversative prefixes ) mal-, pseudo-, mis- :
pejorative prefixes super , sur-, extra
：

prefixes of degree or size anti-, contra-, counter-, pro- :
prefixes of orientation and attitude trans-, fore- tele- : locative prefixes fore-, post- : prefixes of time
and order bi-, uni-, semi- : number prefixes pan-, vice - : miscellaneous prefixes suffixation : 1.
Noun suffixes 1) Denominal nouns 2) Deverbal nouns3) De-adjective nouns: ity, -ness, 4) Noun and
adjective suffixes
注意
Compounding, acoronymy , blending , conversion , clipping
的名词解释
.

5.

复合词分为
哪三类
: 1)solid 2) hyphenated 3) open

6.

what are the
characteristics of compounds
?What are the d
ifference between compounds
and free phrases ?
答案：
1) phonetic features2) Semantic features3) Grammatical features
最常见
的三种词性

: 1) Noun compound 2) Adjective compounds 3) verb compounds

7.

在名词性复合词中有哪几种有多产性
,
哪两种不具有多产性
?
在形容性复合词当中
,
哪三类有多产性
?
动词性复
合词是靠哪两种方法复合在一起的
?

名词解释
:
Conversion
Conversion is the formation of new words by
converting words of one class to another class. Functional shift = conversion
Zero-derivation
(
选
择或填空要点
)Adjective to noun : (1) full conversion (2) partial conversion

8.

形容词转为动词分为哪两类？
答案：由
Adjective to verbs : (1) Transitive (2) Intransitive

9.

‘
blending’
分为哪四类合成词
？
1. head + tail 2. head + head 3. head + word 4. word + tail

绝大多数
blending
都是什么词性
?
答案：
nouns
，
The overwhelming majority of blends are nouns; very
few are verbs and adjectives are even fewer
.

10.

截
短法
clipping
分为哪四类
？答案：
There are four common types of clipping :1) Front clipping2) Back
clipping3) Front and back clipping4) Phrase clipping
要注意
clipping
的例子有一个特殊变化：
fridge
( refrigerator
截短之后在
i, g
中间加一个
d ) ,
还有拼写发生变化，比如说：
coke ( coca cola)

11.

什
么是
acronymy
？
A
cronymy is the process of forming new words by joining the initial letters of ne
ames of social and political organizations or special noun phrases and technical terms Acronymy
包
含两类
:1) initialisms (
不发音
)e.g. BBC, VOA, TB2) acronyms (
形成新的发音
)e.g. CORE, TEFL Words
from proper names
有四大类
:1. Names of people e.g. bobby : Names of people2. Names of places
e.g. champagne, rugby 3. Names of books e.g. utopia 4. Tradenames e.g. cabal

12.

以
下的词采用哪种构词法？

e.g. diagnosis ---?diagnose : (
先有诊断的名词
,
后有了诊 断的动词
,
这种构词被称
作
) backformation bloomers (
它的构词法满足哪一种词法
):
属于
Words from proper names
中的
Names
of people VJ-day :(
这种构词法是由哪一种构成的
)
属于
Initialisms
中的
Acronyms Pop: (
采用哪一种构词法
构成的
) : clipping Sitcom : blending FORTRAN : head + head Bath (
名词
) ----- bathe (
动词
) Bath
和

bathe
存在一种什么关系
? ( Conversion )
重点句：
Conversion is also known as functional shift.

13.

N
oun + v-ing,
这类词构成的词是什么词

？答案：
compounding
14.


Record-breaking ,
它是属于复合法中的哪一种？
答案：
Adjectives compounds

15.

请
说出
Adjectives compounds
中多产性强的有几类？
答有三类
1) n + v-ing 2) n + a3) n + v-ed

16.

u
p-bringing
是属于哪一类构词法构成的词？
答案：
noun compounds (adv + v-ing )

17.

复
合词与自由短语的最大的区别是什么
?
答案：区别也就是复合词的特点
:1) Phonetic features2) Semantic
features3) Grammatical features
18.

r
ed meat, green horn,
它们是复合词的
哪一个特点构成的词
?
答案

：
Semantic features (
也就是从构词上推
不出它的涵义）


19.

C
ompounding
又被称作什么法？
答案：
composition

20.

由
compounding
或
composition
构成的词被称作什么？
答案：
compounds

21.

复
合词分为几类？分别举例加以说明？
答案：分为三类：
solid, hyphenated, opensolid : blackmail ,
blackmarkethyphenated: brother-in-law, open : green horn , green hand

22.

当
形容词转为动词时分为几类：
Adjectives to verbs
答案：
有三类：
1) Both transitive and intransitive 2) Only
transitive 3) Only intransitive
23.


由人的行为所造成的结果进行转类之后，转成了什么词性
?
答案：
verb to noun e.g. catch

24.

形
容词可不可 以转类，
转成名词分为几个类别
?
答案：
分为两类：
1) full conversion e.g. black , white 2) partial
conversion e.g. the rich , the poor

25.

名
词再变成名词分为几类？分别举例说明？
答案：
1) Concrete 2) abstract e.g. host :
（可加
-ess
变成具体
名词）
friend : (
加
-ship
可变成抽象名词
)
26.

A
word is unity of sound and meaning ( true or false )
答案：
true (
可从
word
的四个特点看出）


27.

判
断对错
：
1
．
Conversion means transfer of a word from one class to anther . (true or false )
答案：
true 2
．

The relationship between a word symbol and its meaning is mostly arbitrary and
conventional.(
答案：
true





3.a word used in different contexts may contrast with different
antonyms .(true or false)
答案：
true




4. an allomorph is any of the variant forms of morphemes.
(true or false )
答题：

false




A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one
antonym. E.g. fast
（
fast
在不同的语境中对应着不同的概念）

28.


1) C
hinese is our native language, but we can not say the Chinese is our ?

.a)mother tongue b) first language c) mother language d) official language
答案：
C
）
mother language (
不存在的一种说法
)

2)
以下的哪一个词

is not an expression used by American?

A)

tube B) bar C) Mailbox D) Congress



















答案：
tube (
只有英国人把地铁叫
tube ,
美国人把它叫作
subway, underground )

3)
‘smog’
它是
‘smoke , fog’
合在一起形成的词，它是采用了下面哪一种构词法？

























A)
clipping B ) compounding C) blending D) backformation




答案：

C ) blending

4)
以下的词哪些属于：
A)simple word B) compound word C) derived word D) shortened form.e.g. goldmine
(compound word )bike ( shortened form )process (derived word : cess
是一个不可分割的
bound root
，
pro
它是一个前缀
)supermarket ( derived word )language ( simple word )driver ( derived word )dorm
( shortened form, clipping )modernize ( derivation )blackboard ( compound )bus ( shortened form )
(omnibus )


第五章：
Word Meaning

1. The meanings of
‘Meaning’
指的是哪三个层次的内容
?
意义中的含义的三个层次的划分
: What are the
meanings of ‘Meaning’?
1) Reference (
有
reference
的词必然具有
sense,
也必然具有
Concept ) 2)
Concept(
能够形成
Concept
的词必然有
reference ) 3) Sense (
有
sense
的词未必具有
concept ,
也未必具有
reference) (Conjunction , prepositions, adverbs,
它们都是具有
sense
的词
,
但是未必具有
reference ,
也未
必具有
concept,
例如：
if, but, probably :
它们有
sense,
但没有
concept )
2. What is the relationship between the reference and the thing outside the language?
（等同于：
What is
r
elationship between sound and form

）答
: Arbitrary and conventional

3.

Concept : 1. Meaning and concept are closely connected but not identical .They are both related
directly to referents and are notions of the words but belong to different categories.2. Concept, which
is beyond language, is the result of human cognition, reflecting the objective world in the human mind .
3. Concept is universal to all men alike regardless of culture, race, language and so on. 4. a concept can
have as many referring expressions as there are languages in the world.

4.

Sense: 1. ‘ sense’ denotes the relationships inside the language. ‘ The sense of an expression is its
place in a system of semantic relationships with other expressions in the language.’ 2. Since the
sense of an expression is not a thing, it is often difficult to say what sort of identity it is. It is also an
abstraction. *3. Every word that has meaning has sense (not every word has reference)

5.

What are the type of motivation
？

1) Onomatopoeic motivation 2) Morphological Motivation 3)
Semantic Motivation 4) Etymological Motivation
。

6.

some of the words when edited with prefixes and suffixes, it will become another new word, either