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2021-01-20 01:22
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2021年1月20日发(作者:bytheway)
Sin aqua non
用水之过

Water shortages are a growing problem, but not for the reasons most people think
















THE overthrow of Madagascar’s president in mid
-March was partly caused by water
problems

in South Korea. Worried by the difficulties of increasing food supplies in its
water-stressed homeland, Daewoo, a South Korean conglomerate, signed a deal to lease
no less than half Madagascar’s arable land to grow grain for South Koreans. Widespread
anger at the terms of the deal (the island’s people wou
ld have received practically nothing)
contributed to the president’s unpopularity. One of the new leader’s first acts was to scrap
the agreement.





马< br>达








水< br>资







——





































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Three weeks before that, on the other side of the world, Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger
of California declared a state of emergency. Not for the first time, he threatened water
rationing in the state. “It is clear,” says a recent report by the United Nations World Water
Assessment Programme, “that urgent action is needed if we are to avoid a global water
cr
isis.”
























.





















——



























































Local water shortages are multiplying. Australia has suffered a decade-long drought.
Brazil and South Africa, which depend on hydroelectric power, have suffered repeated
brownouts because there is not enough water to drive the turbines properly. So much has
been pumped out of the rivers that feed the Aral Sea in Central Asia that it collapsed in the
1980s and has barely begun to recover.


























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20< br>世

80



















Yet local shortages, caused by individual acts of mismanagement or regional problems,
are one thing. A global water crisis, which impinges on supplies of food and other goods,
or affects rivers and lakes everywhere, is quite another. Does the world really face a global
problem?


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全< br>球






Water, water everywhere…







……

Not on the face of it. There is plenty of water to go around and human beings are not using
all that much. Every year, thousands of cubic kilometres (km3) of fresh water fall as rain or
snow or come from melting ice. According to a study in 2007, most nations outside the
Gulf were using a fifth or less of the water they receive

at least in 2000, the only year for
which figures are available. The global average withdrawal of fresh water was 9% of the
amount that flowed through the world’s hydrologic cycle. Both Latin America and Africa
used less than 6% (see table). On this evidence, it would seem that all water problems are
local.

























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2 007





















使






1/5














9%




















6%




















The trouble with this conclusion is that no one knows how much water people can safely
use. It is certainly not 100% (the amount taken in Gulf states) because the rest of creation
also has to live off the water. In many places the maximum may well be less than one fifth,
the average for Asia as a whole. It depends on how water is returned to the system, how
much is taken from underground aquifers, and so on.

























使





















100%






























1/5







使

——














































But there is some admittedly patchy evidence that, given current patterns of use and abuse,
the amount now being withdrawn is moving dangerously close to the limit of safety

and
in some places beyond it. An alarming number of the world’s great rivers no longer reach
the sea. They include the Indus, Rio Grande, Colorado, Murray-Darling and Yellow rivers.
These are
the arteries of the world’s main grain
-growing areas.


































——


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——





















Freshwater fish populations are in precipitous decline. According to the World Wide Fund
for Nature, fish stocks in lakes and rivers have fallen roughly 30% since 1970. This is a
bigger population fall than that suffered by animals in jungles, temperate forests,
savannahs and any other large ecosystem. Half the world’s wetlands, on one estimate,
were drained, damaged or destroyed in the 20th century, mainly because, as the volume
of fresh water in rivers falls, salt water invades the delta, changing the balance between
fresh and salt water. On this evidence, there may be systemic water problems, as well as
local disruptions.





















1970















30%







































20










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Two global trends have added to the pressure on water. Both are likely to accelerate over
coming decades.







也< br>给








——





















The first is demography. Over the past 50 years, as the world’s population rose from 3
billion to 6.5 billion, water use roughly trebled. On current estimates, the population is
likely to rise by a further 2 billion by 2025 and by 3 billion by 2050. Demand for water will
rise accordingly.








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30
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2025







20
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2050



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Or rather, by more. Possibly a lot more. It is not the absolute number of people that makes
the biggest difference to water use but changing habits and diet. Diet matters more than
any single factor because agriculture is the modern Agasthya, the mythical Indian giant
who drank the seas dry. Farmers use about three- quarters of th
e world’s water; industry
uses less than a fifth and domestic or municipal use accounts for a mere tenth.












——



























































































3/4





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1/5











1/10


Different foods require radically different amounts of water. To grow a kilogram of wheat
requires around 1,000 litres. But it takes as much as 15,000 litres of water to produce a
kilo of beef. The meaty diet of Americans and Europeans requires around 5,000 litres of
water a day to produce. The vegetarian diets of Africa and Asia use about 2,000 litres a day
(for comparison, Westerners use just 100-250 litres a day in drinking and washing).










使


















1,000














15,000























5,000

















2,000


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100-250




So the shift from vegetarian diets to meaty ones

which contributed to the food-price rise
of 2007-08

has big implications for water, too. In 1985 Chinese people ate, on average,
20kg of meat; this year, they will eat around 50kg. This difference translates into 390km3
(1km3 is 1 trillion litres) of water

almost as much as total water use in Europe.
















2007-08







的< br>原








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20









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The shift of diet will be impossible to reverse since it is a product of rising wealth and
urbanisation. In general, “water intensity” in food increases fa
stest as people begin to climb
out of poverty, because that is when they start eating more meat. So if living standards in
the poorest countries start to rise again, water use is likely to soar. Moreover, almost all the
2 billion people who will be added t
o the world’s population between now and 2030 are
going to be third-world city dwellers

and city people use more water than rural folk. The
Food and Agriculture Organisation reckons that, without changes in efficiency, the world
will need as much as 60% more water for agriculture to feed those 2 billion extra mouths.
That is roughly 1,500km3 of the stuff

as much as is currently used for all purposes in the
world outside Asia.















































































































2 030








20
亿







处< br>于







——

































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