cookie是什么意思托福真题2015-01-10Reading十六世纪欧洲工匠+疾病与历史+地球大气(词句整理)

2021年1月20日发(作者：dirt)

Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe

Words & Phrases
1.

In a few industries there appeared technological innovations that cost more to
install and operate than artisans
—
even associations of artisans
—
could afford.
technological innovations
：技术上的创新

innovation
：
n.
创新
=originality
install:
v.
安装
;
设置
If
you install a
piece
of
equipment,
you
fit
it
or
put
it
somewhere so that it is ready to be used
2.

such specialized equipment as blast furnaces
：像鼓风炉这样的专门设备

blast
：
n./v.
爆炸，喷射
(
气体或水流
)
furnace
：
n.
锅炉

blast furnace
指能向炉肚吹气的锅炉，使燃烧更充分

3.

Thus
the
need
for
fixed
capital
(equipment
and
buildings
used
in
production)
soared
Fixed capital:
固定的资本

Soar
：
v. (
鸟
)
高飞；疾飞，猛涨

4.

expensive in their own right
：从它们自身来看本身就是贵的

in their own right:
从它们自身来看

5.

In addition, pig (raw) iron turned out by blast furnaces could not be forged until
refined further in a new intermediate stage.

pig (raw) iron:
作为原材料的生铁

raw material:
原材料
=primary material
forge: v.
炼
;
锻造
If someone forges an object out of metal, they heat the metal
and then hammer and bend it into the required shape.
refine
：
v.
提炼，精炼（此词来自

re+fine
，

意为反复使之更好的意思，所
以是提炼精炼）

refinery
：
n.
精炼厂，炼油厂

intermediate
：
adj.
居间的，中间的

整句话意思为：此外，从鼓风炉中生产出的生铁不能被锻造，直到在一个居
间的状态中进一步提炼后才可 以被锻造。

6.

constituted artisans’ maj
or expense
：构成工匠的主要花费

expense
：
n.
花费，支出

at the expense of:
以
…
为代价

= at the cost of
7.

a constant preoccupation
：一直关心的事情

constant
：
adj.
一直的，持续的
=steady, continuing
preoccupation
：关注，关心
=concern
8.

The loss of nearby sources could therefore be devastating.
Devastating
：
adj.
毁
灭
性
的< br>;
极
具
破
坏
力
的
If
you
describe
something
as devastating, you are emphasizing that it is very harmful or damaging
9.

silk cultivation waned
wane: v.
月亏，衰落

反义词：
wax:
v.
月盈，增长；
n.
蜡（植物叶子表面的蜡质，用以阻止水分
1

蒸发）

10.

Credit
was
necessary
for
production
but
created
additional
vulnerabilities
for
artisans.

Vulnerabilities: n.
脆弱，易受伤害

Vulnerable: adj.
脆弱的，易受伤害的

Vulnerable to= susceptible to= exposed to=subject to
11.

in a similar fashion:
以同样的方式
=in a similar way
12.

bought
yarn
from
spinners
or
local
brokers:
从纺织者或当地的中间商买进纱
线

13.

became subject to London merchants who monopolized both wool supplies and
woolens exports
变得受制于伦敦商人的控制，
他们既垄断羊毛的供应也垄断羊毛织品的出口



Syntax
1.

For
centuries
European
artisans
had
operated
in
small,
autonomous
handcraft
businesses, but by the sixteenth century an evolving economic system
—
moving
toward
modern
capitalism,
with
its
free-market
pricing,
new
organization
of
production,
investments,
and
so
on
—
had
started
to
erode
their
stable
and
relatively prosperous position.
破折号内的插入语割裂主语
(an evolving economic system)
和谓语
(had started
to erode)
，需要前后连起来读

autonomous handcraft businesses:
独立自主的手工艺行业

capitalism
：
n.
资本主义

capital
：
n.
资本

= currency(
流通中的货币
)=money
free-market pricing
：自由的市场定价

prosperous
：
adj.
富足的；
成功的；
兴旺的；
繁荣的
Prosperous people, places,
and economies are rich and successfu
prosperous = thriving = flourishing (
考过词汇题
)
2.

Whereas in 1583 an Antwerp silk weaver paid 12 guilders for a loom, every six
weeks he or she had to lay out 24 guilders for the 2 pounds of raw silk required
to make a piece of cloth.
Whereas
引导比较的两个句子，一方
…
而另一方
…

Whereas = while

silk weaver:
丝绸编织者

loom
：
n.
织布机

raw silk
：原始的生丝

3.

In the Dutch Republic, merchants who imported unprocessed salt from France,
Portugal, and Spain gained control of the salt-refining industry once exploitation
of local salt marshes was halted for fear that dikes which held back the sea from
the low-lying Dutch land would be undermined.
1
）看到谓语想主语，主语在远离谓语的前面（因为被修饰语分隔）
，所
以< br>”
gained
control
of
”
的主语是
”
merchants
”
，
”
would
be
undermined
”
的主语
是
”
dikes
”
；
2
）
once
引导句子表示
”
一旦
…”
；
3
）介词
for
除了表示
”
为了
…”
2

4.

5.

6.

7.

还可以表示原因
”
因为
…”

Dutch Republic
：荷兰共和国
(
了解即可
)
imported unprocessed salt
：进口未加工的盐

salt-refining industry
：盐加工行业

exploitation
：
n.
开发利用
=utilization(
考过词汇题
)
salt marshes
：盐沼泽

dike
：
n.
大坝，水坝

held back
：阻止

Prices for industrial products lagged behind those of raw materials
Those
代替省略的是前面出现的
”
prices
”

lagged behind:
落后


Periodic downturns, when food prices shot up and demand for manufactures fell
off, drove them further into debt or even into bankruptcy, from which they might
emerge only by agreeing to sell their products exclusively to merchants or fellow
artisans who extended them loans.
1
）看到 谓语想主语，
drove
的主语是句子开头的
periodic
downt urns
，因为
被后面插入的
when
句子分隔，所以和谓语
dro ve
分开了；
2
）介词
+which
，
which
指的是介词前面的名词，所以
from
which
中的
which
指的是前面的
bankrupcy
Downturns
：
n.
经济衰落期

emerge
：
v.
冒出，
（从困境或不好的经历中）
摆脱出来，
熬出来
If you emerge
from a difficult or bad experience, you come to the end of it
exclusively
：
adv.
只，仅仅
=solely (
考过词汇题
)
extended them loans
：给他们延长贷款

Frequent
enough
during
periods
of
growth,
such
credit
crises
became
deeper
and
lasted
longer
after
about
1570,
as
did
war-related
disruptions
of
raw-material supplies and markets.

1
）主语出现前，都是对主语的铺垫修饰，所以“
Frequent
enough
during
periods of growth
”指的是主语“
such credit crises
”
2
）
as did=so did
，
这是
省
略
+
倒
装
，
补
全
完< br>整
的
正
常
语
序
应
该
是
：< br>war-related
disruptions
of
raw- material supplies and markets became deeper and lasted longer.
因为和
前面句子的谓语部分重复，所以用
as did
代替了。


The disappearance of regional markets where weavers in Flanders (what is now
northern
Belgium)
had
previously
bought
flax
and
sold
linen
left
them
at
the
mercy of big-city middlemen, who quickly turned them into domestic workers.
1）
看到谓语想主语，
主语在远离谓语的前面
（因为被修饰从句
where
分隔）
，
所以
”
left
”
的主语是
”< br> The disappearance of regional markets
”
；
2
）
left
是留下
导致的意思。

at the mercy of
：处在
…
的怜悯下，任凭
…
支配

bought flax and sold linen
：买亚麻卖出亚麻布

domestic workers
：家庭工人


3

Abstract
→

Concrete

1.

Artisans’
autonomy
was
imperiled,
too,
by
restrictions
on
their
access
to
markets. 工匠的独立自主性也受
“进入市场受限”
的威胁，
这句话当中对于
“restrictions
on their access to markets
”
（进入市场受限制）的具体理解是什么？下文是
怎样展开的？

Autonomy: n.
自治，独立自主

Imperil: v.
使陷于危险
;
危及
Something that imperils you puts you in danger
Restriction: n.
限制
=constrain=restrain=limitation


Disease and History


Words & Phrases
1.

Epidemiology is the study of the causes, distribution, and control of diseases in
populations.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.


Epidemiology
：流行病学

Epidemic
：
n.
流行病

Endemic
：
adj.
（疾病）地方性的，流行的
If a disease or illness is endemic in a
place, it is frequently found among the people who live there.
Distribution: n.
分布

general trends
：整体的趋势

trend=tendency
趋势
= inclination
倾向性

Anthropologist George Armelogos has outlined these trends and refers to them
as
three “epidemiological
transitions
.”

Refer to
…
as
…
：把
…
称之为
…

transition: n.
过渡，转变

widely dispersed, nomadic groups
：广泛散播的游牧群体

dispersed=scattered
：

adj.
散播的，分散开的

nomadic
：
adj.
游牧的，游荡的——反义词：
sedentary:
定居的

Animal domestication may have brought people into contact with new diseases
previously limited to other species.
动物的驯化也许使人们接触到新的疾病，这些新的疾病先前局限于感染其他
物种
(
而不是人类
)
。

Domestication
：
n.
驯养，驯化

Dome
：
n.
圆屋顶，将动物拿到屋下培养，即驯化
domesticate
区别于
dominate
：
v.
占主导地位，统治
…

Bring
…
into contact with
…
：使
…
进入到和
…
的接触中

limited to=restricted to=confined to=constrained to=restrained to
exposed farmers to insects and other pathogens
将农民暴露于昆虫和其他的病原体

breeding places for mosquitoes
：蚊子的繁育地点

nutritional deficiencies
：营养不足

4
9.

the storage of food surpluses attracted new disease carriers such as insects and
rats
：食物剩余的储存吸引了新的疾病携带者，例如昆虫和老鼠

注意：疾病携带者
disease
carrier
，携带疾病，但自身并不 被疾病感染发作。
例如我们常说的乙肝携带者，带有乙肝病毒，但自身不发作，有感染其他人
的 可能。对于这个概念的理解有道题出了一个选项，很多考生做错。我们结
合题目再说。在此，大家记住这 个概念的真正意思。

10.

In terms of what ailed and killed us, there was a shift to chronic diseases such as
heart and lung diseases.
In terms of
：从
…
的角度去看
=in respect to
ail: v.
使患病
;
使不适
If something ails someone, they are ill
a shift to chronic diseases:
朝向慢性病转变

chronic
：
adj.
慢性的，长期的

chron-
词根，时间的意思，所以
chronicle
：
n.
编年史；
synchronize
：
v.
使同步同时发生

11.

new
and
serious
antibiotic-resistant
strains
of
tuberculosis
have
recently
appeared
antibiotic-resistant strains of tuberculosis
：抗
-
抗生素的肺炎链球菌品种

strain
：
n.
（细菌病毒的）品种，品系

antibiotic
：
n.
抗生素

12.

overuse of antibiotics
：抗生素的过度使用

13.

to
evolve
resistance
by
exposing
them
to
a
constant
barrage
of
selective
challenges
：
通过暴露于选择性挑战的连续轰炸中而进化出抵抗性
（指一直 给
人体使用抗生素，结果人体中的有害细菌暴露于抗生素的连续轰炸中，加快
了选择性进化速度 ）

a constant barrage
：连续的弹幕轰炸

14.

genetic mutation
：基因突变



Syntax
1.

Sanitation
problems
caused
by
larger,
more
sedentary
populations
would
have
helped transmit diseases in human waste, as would the use of animal dung for
fertilizer.
as would
是一种省略
+
倒装，省略了与前句重复的谓语和宾语，

as would
后面才是句子真正的主语

这个句子补全省略内容恢复正常语序为：
the use of animal dung for fertilizer
would have helped transmit diseases
Sanitation problems
：卫生问题

Sedentary
：
adj.
定居的

transmit diseases
：传递疾病

animal dung for fertilizer
：用于肥料的动物粪便


2.

With modern medical science providing immunizations and antibiotics and with
better public health measures and improved nutrition, many infectious diseases
were brought under control, or even eliminated.
1
）
介词
with
表伴随；
2
）
and
并列对象的寻找，
根据结构对等，
内容对等，
5