workoutGlossary 语言学

2021年1月21日发(作者：控诉)
Glossary

This glossary covers the important terms used in this book. For further
discussion of a term, please consult the index.
achievement test:
a test which measures how much of a language someone
has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of
instruction.
acoustic phonetics:
a branch of phonetics, which deals with the transmission
of speech sounds through the air.
acronym:
words which are composed of the first letter of a series of words and
are pronounced as single words. Examples:
NATO, radar and yuppy.

adjacency pair:
a set of two consecutive, ordered turns that
conversation, such as question/answer sequences and greeting/greet-
ing exchange.
affective meaning:
information conveyed about the attitudes and emotions of
the language users toward the content or context of their expression.
agent:
the semantic role of the noun phrase whose referent does the action
described by the verb, for example,
George
in
George hugged Martha.

allomorph:
a phonetic form in which a morpheme is realized, e.g. -s,
-es,
and
-en axe
all allomorphs (in writing) of the plural morpheme.
allophone:
a phonetic form in which a phoneme is realized.
anaphora:
a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another
word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.
anthropological linguistics:
a branch of linguistics which studies the rela-
tionship between language and culture in a community, e.g. its traditions,
beliefs, and family structure.
antonymy:
the sense relation of various kinds of opposing meaning between
326

Glossary .till

lexical items, e.g.
big/small, alive/dead
and
good/bad.
aphasia:
loss of
the ability to use and understand language, usually caused
by damage to the brain. The loss may be total or partial, and may affect
spoken and/or written language ability.
applied linguistics:
the study of
language and linguistics in relation to practical issues, e.g. speech therapy,
language teaching, testing, and
translation.
arbitrariness:
the absence of similarity between the form of a
linguistic sign
and what it relates to in reality, e.g. the word
dog
does not look like a dog.
articulators:
the tongue, lips, and velum, which change the shape of the vocal
tract to produce different speech sounds.
articuiatory phonetics:
the
study of how the vocal tract produces speech
sounds.
assimilation:
a phonological process whereby a sound becomes
phonetically
similar (or identical) to a neighboring sound, e.g. a vowel becomes [+nasal]
when followed by a [+nasal] consonant.
audiolingual method:
the
teaching of a second language through imitation,
repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking
and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in
the classroom is not allowed.
auditory phonetics:
the study of the
perception of speech sounds.
backformation:
creation of a new word by
removing an affix from an old word,
e.g.
donate
from
donation;
or by removing what is mistakenly considered
an affix, e.g.
edit
from
editor.
benefactive (case):
the noun or noun phrase that
refers to the person or animal who benefits, or is meant to benefit, from the
action of the verb, is in
the benefactive case. For example,
Louise
in the sentence
Joan baked

Louise a cake
is in the benefactive case.
bilingualism:
the use of at least
two languages either by an individual or by a
group of speakers, such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.
bound morpheme:
a morpheme that can not stand alone as a word, e.g.
-ment

(as in
establishment),
and -er(as in
painter).

317

categorization:
the mental process of classification.
category:
the products of categorization.
code-switching:
the movement back and forth between two
languages or
dialects within the same sentence or discourse.
cognitive linguistics:
a new approach to the study of language and mind.
According to this approach, language and language use are based on
our bodily experience and the way we conceptualize it.
cognitive style:
the particular way in which a learner tries to learn something.
In second or foreign language learning, different learners may prefer dif-
ferent solutions to learning problems. For example, some people may
want
explanations
for
grammatical
rules;
others
may
not
need
any
explanation.
coherence:
the relationships which link the meanings of utterances in a dis-
course or of the sentences in a text.
cohesion:
the grammatical and/or lexical relationships between the different
elements of a text. This may be the relationship between different sen-
tences or between different parts of a sentence.
communicative language teaching:
an approach to foreign or second lan-
guage teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is
communicative competence.
competence:
knowledge of the grammar of a language as a formal abstrac-
tion and distinct from the behavior of actual use, i.e. performance.
componential analysis:
(in semantics) an approach to the study of meaning
which analyzes a word into a set of meaning components or semantic
features. For example, the meaning of the English word
boy
may be
shown as [+human] [+male] [-adult].
consonant:
a speech sound produced by partial or complete closure of part of
the vocal tract, thus obstructing the airflow and creating audible friction.
Consonants are described in terms of voicing, place of articulation, and
manner of articulation.
context:
those aspects of the circumstances of actual language use which are
taken as relevant to meaning. Usually there are two types of context:
328

Glossary .liiil

linguistic and situational.
contrastive analysis:
a method of analyzing languages for instructional pur-
poses whereby a native language and target language are compared
with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties
for learners.
conversational analysis:
the analysis of natural conversation in order to dis-
cover what the linguistic characteristics of conversation are and how con-
versation is used in ordinary life.
conversational implicature:
the use of conversational maxims to imply mean-
ing during conversation is called conversational implicature.
Cooperative Principle:
a principle proposed by the philosopher Paul Grice
whereby those involved in communication assume that both parties will
normally seek to cooperate with each other to establish agreed meaning.
It is composed of four maxims: quality, quantity, relation, and manner.
corpus linguistics:
linguistic description based on the extensive accumula-
tion of actually occurring language data and its analysis by the computer.
Creole:
a language that begins as a pidgin and eventually becomes the first
language of a speech community through its being learned by children.
criterion-referenced test:
a test which measures a student's performance
according to a particular standard or criterion which has been agreed
upon.
critical discourse analysis:
the analysis of language use directed at, and
committed to, discovering its concealed ideological bias.
deep structure:
the abstract structure of a sentence before any transforma-
tions have applied; also called
underlying structure.

deixis:
the marking of the orientation or position of entities and situations with
respect to certain points of reference such as the place
(here/there)
and
time
(now/then)
of utterance.
derivational morpheme:
a morpheme that serves to derive a word of one
class or meaning from a word of another class or meaning. Examples:
-ment
(as in
establishment)
derives the noun from the verb
establish;
re- (repaint)
changes the meaning of the verb
paint to

319

design features:
those features of human language, like arbitrariness and
duality, which are thought to distinguish it from other kinds of animal
communication.
developmental psycholinguistics:
the examination of how infants and chil-
dren acquire the ability to comprehend and speak their mother tongue.
diachronic:
studying linguistic change over time in contrast to looking at lan-
guage as it is used at a given moment.
diagnostic test:
a test which is designed to show what skills or knowledge a
learner knows and doesn't know. For example, a diagnostic pronuncia-
tion test may be used to measure the learner's pronunciation of English
sounds.
It
would
show
which
sounds
a
student
is
and
is
not
able
to
pronounce. Diagnostic tests may be used to find out how much a learner
knows before beginning a language course.
dialect:
a language variety characteristic of a particular social group; dialects
can be characteristic of regional, social, temporal, occupational or gen-
der groups.
dialectology:
the search for spatially and geographically determined differ-
ences in various aspects of language.
diglossia:
a situation when two distinct varieties of the same language are
used, side by side, for two different sets of functions.
direct method:
the learning of a second language by using the target lan-
guage directly and associating speech form with action, gesture, objects
and situations. Mother tongue is never or rarely used in the classroom,
and the students supposedly acquire the second language in a way simi-
lar to the way they acquired their first language.
discourse:
a general term for examples of language use, i.e. language which
has been produced as the result of an act of communication. It refers to
the larger units of language such as paragraphs, conversations, and
interviews.
discourse analysis:
the study of how sentences in spoken and written lan-
guage form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs , conversations,
and interviews.
330

Glossary -i

discrete-point test:
a language test which measures knowledge of individual
language items, such as a grammar test which has different sections on
tense, adverbs, and prepositions. Discrete-point tests are based on the
theory that language consists of different parts (e.g. grammar, sounds,
vocabulary) and different skills (e.g. listening, speaking, reading, and
writing) and these are made up of elements that can be tested separately.
distinctive
feature:
(in
phonology)
a
particular
characteristic
which
distin-
guishes one distinctive sound of a language from another or one group
of sounds from another group. For example, in the English sound system,
one distinctive feature which distinguishes the /p/ in
pin
from the /b/ in
bin
is voice. The
Ibl
is a voiced stop whereas the /p/ is a voiceless stop.
duality:
the way meaningless elements of language at one level (sounds and
letters) combine to form meaningful units (words) at another level.
educational linguistics:
a term sometimes used in the U.S.A. to refer to a
branch of applied linguistics which deals with the relationship between
language and education.
elision:
the leaving out of a sound or sounds in speech.
ellipsis:
the leaving out of words or phrases from sentences where they are
unnecessary because they have already been referred to or mentioned.
For example, when the subject of the verb in two coordinate clauses is
the same, it may be omitted in the second clause to avoid repetition.
entailment:
the relationship between two sentences where the truth of one
(the second) is inferred from the truth of the other, e.g.
Corday assassi-
nated Marat
and
Marat is dead;
if the first is true, the second must be
true.
error:
the production of incorrect forms in speech or writing by a non-native
speaker of a second language, due to his incomplete knowledge of the
rules of that target language.
error analysis:
the study and analysis of the errors made by second and for-
eign language learners in order to identify causes of errors or common
difficulties in language learning.
euphemism:
a word or phrase that replaces a taboo word or is used to avoid
331

reference to certain acts or subjects, e.g.
powder room
for
toilet.

felicity condition:
(in speech act theory) the conditions which must be fulfilled
for a speech act to be satisfactorily performed or realized. For example,
the utterances /
promise the sun will set
or /
promise I'll get some stars
for your birthday
cannot be considered as true promises, because we
can only make promises about future acts which are under our control.
field dependence:
a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the
whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has
difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other
items.
field independence:
a learning style in which a learner is able to identify or
focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the back-
ground or context.
first language acquisition:
the learning and development of a person's na-
tive language.
forensic linguistics:
the examination of linguistic evidence for legal purposes.
formal linguistics:
the study of the abstract forms of language and their inter-
nal relations.
fossilization:
(in second or foreign language learning) a process which some-
times occurs in which incorrect linguistic features become a permanent
part of the way a person speaks or writes the target language. Aspects of
pronunciation, vocabulary usage, and grammar may become fixed or
fossilized in second or foreign language learning.
free morpheme:
a morpheme that can stand alone as a word.
functional linguistics:
an approach to linguistics which is concerned with lan-
guage as an instrument of social interaction rather than as a system that
is viewed in isolation. It considers the individual as a social being and
investigates the way in which he or she acquires language and uses it in
order to communicate with others in his or her social environment.
garden path sentence:
a sentence in which the comprehender assumes a
particular meaning of a word or phrase but discovers later that the as-
sumption was incorrect, forcing the comprehender to backtrack and
332