skull语言学重点总结

2021年1月21日发(作者：addr)
Chapter 6
Cognition

is
the
mental
process
or
faculty
of
knowing,
including
aspects
such
as
awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.
There
exist
three
approaches
to
the
study
of
language
and
cognition:
the
formal
approach, the psychological approach and the conceptual approach.
The
Formal
approach
basically
addresses
the
structural
patterns
exhibited
by
the
overt
aspect
of
linguistic
forms,
largely
abstracted
away
from
or
regarded
as
autonomous from any associated meaning.
The
Psychological
approach

looks
at
language
from
the
perspective
of
relatively
general
cognitive
systems
ranging
from
perception,
memory,
and
attention
to
reasoning.
The conceptual approach
is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes
by which conceptual content is organized in language.
Structure

will
be
used
to
refer
both
to
patterns
and
to
process,
the
conceptual
approach
can
more
simply
be
said
to
address
how
language
structures
conceptual
content.
Psycholinguistics
is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies
the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use of language.
Six
aspects
of
research
within
psycholinguistics:
①
Acquisition
②
Comprehension
③
Production
④
Disorders
⑤
Language and thought
⑥
Neurocognition
Language
acquisition
:
①
Holophrastic
stage
②
Two-word
stage
③
Stage
of
three-word utterances
④
Fluent grammatical conversation stage
Connectionism
in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links
between
spelling
units
and
sound
units
to
generate
pronunciations
of
written
words
like
tove
and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like
stove
, or words that
are exceptions to these patterns, like
love
.


Language
comprehension
:
①
word
recognition
②
comprehension
of
sentences
③
comprehension of text
Cohort model
: the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of
word candidates that are consistent with the input.
Interactive
model

holds
that
higher
processing
levels
have
a
direct,
“top
-
down”
influence on lower levels.
The
race model
doe
s not agree “top
-
down” effects, it has two routes that race each
other----a
pre-lexical
route,
which
computes
phonological
information
from
the
acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated
with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed.
Serial
models

propose
that
the
sentence
comprehension
system
continually
and
sequentially follows the constraints of a language’s grammar with remarkable speed.

Parallel models
emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range
of information, including grammatical, lexical and contextual, as well as knowledge
of the speaker/writer and of the world in general.
In
resonance model
, information in long-term memory is automatically activated by
the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.
Language
production
:
①
Access
to
words
②
Generation
of
sentences
③
Written

1
language production
Functional planning process
assigns grammatical functions such as subject, verb or
direct object.
Positional encoding
uses the retrieved lexicon-grammar units and the functions they
have
been
assigned
to
generate
syntactic
structures
that
capture
the
dependencies
among constituents and their order.
Cognitive linguistics
is based on human experiences of the world and the way they
perceive and conceptualize the world.
Construal
is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways
through
specificity,
different
mental
scanning,
directionality,
vantage
point,
figure-ground segregation etc.
Construal
operations
are
the
underlying
psychological
processed
and
resources
employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.


①
Attention/Salience
②
Judgment/Comparison
③
Perspective/Situatedness
Trajector
refers to a dynamic figure and
landmark
to the ground of a moving figure.
Deixis
involves linguistic forms that point at something from the speech situation.
Categorization
is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories
based on commonalities and differences.
There are three levels in categories:
①
the basic level
②
the superordinate level
③
the
subordinate level
The
categories
at
the
basic
level

are
those
that
are
most
culturally
salient
and
are
required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best.
Superordinate
categories are the most general ones. The members of a superordinate
category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at
this level.
Image
schema

is
a
recurring,
dynamic
pattern
of
our
perceptual
interactions
and
motor
programs
that
gives
coherence
and
structure
to
our
experience.
①
A
center-periphery
schema:
It
involves
a
physical
or
metaphorical
core
and
edge,
and
degrees of distance from the core
②
A containment schema: It is an image schema that
involves a physical pr metaphorical boundary, enclosed area or volume, or excluded
area
or
volume.
③
A
cycle
schema:
It
involves
repetitious
events
and
event
series.
④
A force schema: It involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction.

⑤
A link
schema:
It
consists of two or more entities,
connected physically or metaphorically,
and
the
bound
between
them.
⑥
A
part-whole
schema:
It
involves
physical
or
metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts.
⑦
A path
schema:
It
involves
physical
or
metaphorical
movement
from
place
to
place,
and
consists
of
a
starting
point,
a
goal,
and
a
series
of
intermediate
points.
⑧
A
scale

2
schema:
It
involves
an
increase
or
decrease
of
physical
or
metaphorical
amount.

⑨
A verticality schema: It involves “up” and “down” relations.

Metaphor
involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms
of the other.
The
target domain
is the experience being described by the metaphor and the
source
domain
is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.
Three
categories
of
conceptual
metaphors:
ontological
metaphors,
structural
metaphors, and orientational metaphors.
Ontological metaphor
means that human experiences with physical objecets provide
the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and
substances.
Structural
metaphor

plays
the
important
role
because
it
allows
us
to
go
beyond
orientation
and
referring
and
gives
us
the
possibility
to
structure
one
concept
according to another.
Orientational metaphor
gives a concept a spatial orientation. They are characterized
not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another, but by a co-occurrence in
our experience.
Metonymy

is
defined
as
a
cognitive
process
in
which
the
vehicle
provides
mental
process to the target within the same domain.
We
have
three
ICMs
in
ontological
realms:
①
Sign
ICMs
②
Reference
ICMs
③
Concept ICMs
Blending theory
or
integration theory
is a cognitive operation whereby elements of
two or more “mental spaces” are integrated via projection into a new, blended space
which has its unique structure.


Chapter 7 Language, Culture and Society
Context of situation:
A.

The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities
ⅰ
.
The verbal action of the participants.

ⅱ
. The non-verbal action of the participants.
B.

The relevant objects.
C.

The effects of the verbal action.
Ethnography of communication
: an authoritative research framework of our time in
a linguistic study of social and cultural factors. The essential elements suggested by
this framework include

①
speech community
②
situation, event and act
③
mnemonic
speaking components.
Sapir-Whorf
Hypothesis:
our
language
helps
mould
our
way
of
thinking
and,
consequently,
different
languages
may
probably
express
our
unique
ways
of
understanding the world.
Following this argument, two important points could be captured in
this
theory.
On
the
one
hand,
language
may
determine
our
thinking
patterns;
on
the
other, similarity between languages is relative.

Linguistic
determinism
:
one
of
the
two
points
in
Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis,
i.e.

3