清晰度-religious
Part I Wisdom and Beliefs
Unit 1 Confucian thought on heaven and humanity
Confucius (551-479 BC), known in China as Kongzi, given name Qiu and alias Zhongni, was a
native of Zouyi (present-day Qufu in Shandong Province) of the State of Lu during the Spring and
Autumn Period (770-476 BC). A great thinker, educator and founder of Confucianism, Confucius is
an ancient sage to the Chinese people. His words and life story were recorded by his disciples and
their students in The Analects (Lunyu).
Confucius on Heaven: the source of Everything
In the Shang (1600-1046 BC) and Zhou (1046-256 BC) dynasties, the prevalent concept of
“
Heaven
”
was that of a personified god, which influenced Confucius. Generally, however,
Confucius regarded
“
Heaven
”
as nature. He said,
“
Heaven does not speak in words. It speaks
through the rotation of the four seasons and the growth of all living things.
”
Obviously, heaven
equaled nature, in the eyes of Confucius. Moreover, nature was not a lifeless mechanism separate
from humans; instead, it was the great world of life and the process of creation of life. Human life
was part and parcel of nature as a whole.
Confucius on People: ren and li
Ren
and
Li
are the two core concepts of Confucius's doctrine about people.
When his students Fan Chi asked him about ren, Confucius replied,
“
love people
”
. This is
Confucius' most important interpretation of ren. Love for the people is universal love. Confucius
further emphasized that this kind of love should
“
begin with the love for one's parents
”
. He
believed no one could love people in general if they did not even love their own parents. Confucius
regarded
“
filial piety and fraternal duty
”
as the essence of ren. The Doctrine of the Mean
(Zhongyong) quotes Confucius as saying,
“
The greatest love for people is the love for one's
parents.
”
He also said,
“
Children should not travel far while their parents are alive. If they have no
choice but to do so, they must retain some restraint.
”
He did not mean that children should not
leave their parents at all. What he meant was that children should not make the parents anxious about
them while away from home. Confucius said again,
“
Children should think often of the age of their
parents. They should feel happy for the health and longevity of their parents. They should also feel
concern for the aging of their parents.
”
By ren, Confucius meant universal love based on love for one's parents. How should people
love one another then Confucius said,
“
One should be aware that other people may have similar
desires as oneself. While fulfilling one's desires, allow others to fulfill their desires as well.
”
He
further said,
“
Do not do toward others anything you would not want to be done to you.
”
Thus
from oneself to one's family, from family to society, one should extend love to all people. Mencius
(c. 372-289 BC), a great Confucian scholar, best summarized ren as,
“
loving one's parents, loving
the people, loving everything in the world.
”
Li refers to rituals, traditions and norms in social life. Of these, Confucius regarded burial rituals
and ancestral worship rituals as the most important, because they rose from human feelings. He said,
“
A child should not leave his parents' bosom until he is three years old.
”
He naturally love his
parents. The ritual of wearing mourning for a deceased parent for three years was an expression of the
child's love and remembrance.
Confucius on the State of life
Before Confucius, only the nobility had the right to education. He was the first figure in Chinese
history to initiate private education. According to historical records, Confucius taught for many years
and trained 3,000 disciples. A total of 72 of them excelled in the
“
six arts
”
, ., ritual, music, archery,
(carriage)driving, calligraphy, and mathematics. A great educator, Confucius has been admired by later
generations as the
“
sage of sages
”
.
Confucius believed the basic goal of education was to cultivate
“
persons of virtue
”
, who
should have sound character and uplifted minds. Such people should be able to shoulder important
social responsibilities and to make contributions to society. Confucius regarded lofty ideals, great
virtue, love of people, and the
“
six arts
”
as the general principles of education. Of these, virtue was
the most important. His students were involved in a variety of professions, including politics, trade,
education, diplomacy, ritual ceremony, and classifying ancient books. Whatever they did, they all
wanted to improve their learning of the humanities and to enhance their virtue.
Unit 2 Laozi's philosophy of Non-action
The book
Laozi
was written around the sixth century BC. The author is generally believed to be
Lao Dan, or Laozi
–
a recluse who lived during the Spring and Autumn Period. Few records have
survived about Lao Dan, who was said to have once held a low civil position in the royal court, in
chare of the archival records of the Zhou Dynasty. Yet, due to his great learning, even Confucius was
said to have traveled miles to consult him.
Laozi, also known as
Classic of the Way and Virtue
(Dao De Jing), consists of just over 5,000
Chinese characters. Its 81 chapters are divided into two parts, Dao (the Way) and De (Virtue). Short
as it is, the book has played a tremendous role in the development of Chinese culture. It became the
basis of Daoism, the school of philosophy parallel to Confucianism in ancient China. The thought of
Laozi formed the foundation of Daoism, the most influential indigenous school of religion in China.
It has also exerted a direct impact on the characteristics, trends of thought and aesthetic sensibilities
of the Chinese nation. Today Laozi still plays a role in the development of Chinese thinking.
Naturalness and Non-action
“
Naturalness
”
is an important concept of Laozi's philosophy. It refers to a natural state of
being, an attitude of following the way of nature. Laozi emphasized that everything in the world has
its own way of being and development: birds fly in the sky, fish swim in the water, clouds float in the
sky, flowers bloom and flowers fall. All these phenomena occur independently and naturally without
following any human will, and humans should not try to change anything natural. Laozi admonished
people to give up on any desire to control the world. Following the way of nature is the way to
resolving conflicts between humans and the world.
“
Non- action
”
is another important concept of Laozi's philosophy. It is the guarantee of
“
Naturalness
”
. Laozi said,
“
(Dao or the Way) acts through non- action,
”
by which he did no
mean that one should do nothing and passively wait for something to be achieved. Neither did he
deny human creativity. What he meant is that human enterprises should be built on the basis of
naturalness, not on many attempts to interrupt the rhythm of nature. Human creativity should be in
compliance with the ways of nature.
The philosophy of Non-contention
On the basis of
“
naturalness
”
and
“
non-action
”
, Laozi proposed the view of
“
overcoming the strong by being weak
”
. The era Laozi lived in was replete with endless wars.
Therefore, war was an important treme for philosophers, and ant-war thinking was the norm. Even
the great strategist Sunzi advocated
“
winning a war without fighting it
”
, not to mention the great
thinker Confucius, who strongly championed a government based on love. Their contemporary Mozi
(c. 468-376 BC), founder of Mohism, also condemned wars while calling for
“
love for all
”
.
According to Laozi, war springs from humanity's bloated desires. Conflict arises out of
people's struggles to satisfy their desires, and conflict escalates into war. Therefore, Laozi's
philosophy is based on
“
non-contention
”
. To him, human striving and competitive strife is the
root cause of decline; desiring nothing is the natural way of life.
Laozi said,
“
The greatest virtue is like water.
”
He compared his philosophy of
“
non- contention
”
to water, to distinguish it from the law of the jungle. He said,
“
Water nourishes
everything but contends for nothing.
”
To Laozi, humans tend to seek higher positions while water
always flows to lower places. Driven by desire, humans like whatever they think is superior while
despising whatever they think is inferior. Yet water always flows downward. As the source of life,
water nourishes all living things on Earth. No life can exist without water. Water contributes to the
world without regard for gain or loss. Remaining low, level and tranquil, water embraces and reflects
everything under heaven. The way of water is completely different from the way of people with avid
desires.
But the philosophy of Laozi is by no means weak. On the contrary, it is full of strength.
According to Laozi, water accumulates great strength in its weakness and quietude. Its strength can
break down all barriers in the world. He said,
“
Nothing in the world is weaker than water. Yet
nothing is stronger than water when it comes to breaking something strong.
”
Water is a typical
example of the weak winning over the strong. Water is invincible because it desires nothing and
contends for nothing.
Unit 3 Chinese Buddhist Culture
Who am I Where am I from Where am I going
Men are mortal. But death is not an once-and-for-all thing. They enter the rotating Wheel of Six
Realms:Heaven, Human, Asura, Animal, Hungry Ghost, Hell.
Documents stored in computer can be canceled at will, but what we have done in our life, and
actually in our innumerable lives, cannot. What has been done has been done. The information is
stored in your true
“
self
”
, not the physical one, and will accompany you life after life, and
determines which Realm you enter.
Only when we are completely free from lust, hatred, and folly, can
we manage to break away from the capture of the rotating Wheel, and achieve perpetual
enlightenment, discovering your true
“
self
”
.
In Buddhism there isn't any dominating god who
controls your destiny. We are the maker of our own fate. What we are at present is a result of what we
have done in the past; and what we will be in the future is decided by what we are doing at present.
What we have done form the
“
karma
”
, which, like a gene, decides on your future story. But this
“
gene
”
can of course be modified, by doing good deeds and obtaining healthy biological and
spiritual energy, so as to change our future course of career. We are, therefore, our own master.
What are the basic requirements for a Buddhist
Five Prohibitions for the laymen:
1) Don't kill;
2) Don't steal;
3) Don't seek aberrant sensual
pleasures;
4) Don't talk irresponsibly;
5) Don't drink alcohol.
Part II Creativity and Exchange
Unit 4 The Silk Road
The silk road refers to a transport route connecting ancient China with Central Asia, West Asia,
Africa, and the European continent. It appeared as early as the second century BC and was traveled
mainly by silk merchants. The term
“
Silk Road
”
, or
“
die Seidenstrasse
”
in German, was first noted
down by the German geographer Ferdinand Von Richthofen at the end of the 19th century.
The silk road began in Chang'an (present-day Xi'an, capital of Shaanxi Province), passing
through Gansu and Xinjiang to Central Asia, West Asia, and to lands by the Mediterranean. There
were no signs of communication between ancient Chinese civilization and Mediterranean civilization
in earlier history. In about the seventh century BC, the ancient Greeks began to learn about an ancient
civilization to the east, yet knew little about it. Before the Silk Road, according to archeological
findings, there had already existed an intermittent trade route on the grasslands from the Yellow River
and the Indus River drainage areas to the Euphrates and the Tigris, and the Nile drainage areas. Yet
real communication between China, Central and West Asian countries, Africa and the European
continent did not develop until the opening of the Silk Road.
Zhang Qian, Trail Blazer
The pioneer who blazed the trail of the Silk Road was Zhang Qian (c. 164-114 BC). In Zhang
Qian's time, the Chinese has little knowledge about Central and West Asian countries, Africa or
Europe, although they were aware of the existence of many different countries and cultures in faraway
places to the west.
During the reign of Emperor Wu (r. 140-135 BC), there were 36 small kingdoms in the Western
Regions (present-day Xinjiang and parts of Central Asia). All of them were later conquered by the
Huns, who then posed a direct threat to the Western Han and blocked the dynasty's path west.
Under these circumstances, Emperor Wu appointed Zhang Qian to lead a team of more than 100
envoys to the Western Regions.
The mission was to unite the Indo-Scythic people against the Huns, who once killed their
chieftain. Zhang Qian's team set out in 138 BC. No sooner had they entered the Hexi Corridor
(northwest of present-day Gansu Province), than they were captured by the Huns. After being held
under house arrest for over ten years, Zhang Qian and only one other remaining envoy managed to
escape and return to Chang'an in 126 BC. Their accounts about the Western Regions were a
revelation to Hun emperor and his ministers.
In the next two decades, Emperor Wu launched three major campaigns against the Huns,
forcing them to retreat from the Western Regions. In 119 BC, the emperor sent Zhang Qian on a
second mission to the Western Regions. This time Zhang Qian went further west, while his deputies
reached more than a dozen countries in South and West Asia, and the Mediterranean.
Zhang Qian's two missions to the Western Regions opened up the road to the west. Emperor
Wu adopted a series of measures to strengthen ties with the Western Regions, including encouraging
Han People to trade there.
Soon the route was bustling with caravans of camels carrying goods of all types and
reverberating with the tinkling of their bells. Through the Silk Road, trade flourished between China
and Central, South and West Asian countries, Africa and Europe. In 166, envoys from Rome arrived
via the Silk Road in Chang'an, were they set up an embassy.
Part III Art and Aesthetics
Unit 5 Music: Govern the Country, Nourish the Mind
The tradition of Chinese music dates back to remote antiquity. Governing the country and
nourishing the mind through music are two of the main functions of this tradition.
Governance Through Music
According to ancient Chinese culture, rituals provided the norms of conduct of people. The goal
was to maintain social order.
Music was for the mind's cultivation and expression. Its purpose was to enhance people's
outlook on life and imbue them with energy and creativity, such that they could enjoy a more
harmonious and happier spiritual life. Individual contentment would then lead to social harmony, as
well as to a more harmonious relationship between people and nature. The highest level of ancient
Chinese music was to represent spiritual with nature.
The prominent stature of music in ancient China explains the emergence of sophisticated
instruments from early times. Chime bells were one example. First used in the Shang Dynasty, they
became quite popular during the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771 BC). In 1978, a fine set of chime
bells was unearthed in Hubei Province, from the tomb of Marquis Yi, a local lord in a small state
called Zeng during the Warring States Period.
The Marquis Yi chime bells consist of 65 bells arranged in three rows. The first row includes 19
niu bells, and the second and third rows include 45 yong bells. The bells in each row differ from one
another in shape and size, emanating(
发出
) different tones. In addition, there is a separate and much
larger bell used to adjust pitch. Like the bells, the from is made of bronze, weighing as much as five
tons or more. The total weight of the bells is more than 440 kilograms. While the bells bear
inscriptions totaling more than 2,800 Chinese characters relating to music and the making of the
instrument, the frame is carved with exquisite patterns in relief (
浮雕
) and fretwork(
回纹细工
).
Instruments of such a scale and such fine craftsmanship were quite rate in the world at the time. Five
musicians were needed to play the instrument. Each bell produces two tones when struck at the
respective sound points as marked. The entire set of chime bells is able to produce all the tones of a
modern piano.
Consoling the Mind with Music
Wild Geese Landing on the
The Chinese zither tends to create a tranquil air. The composition
Shallow Shore
is such an example. With a relaxed rhythm, the first part of the piece depicts a calm
Yangtze River under a clear autumn sky. The second part progresses into livelier rhythms to imitate
the chirping of many birds. The third part presents a thematic scene of wild geese leisurely landing on
the shallow shores of the Yangtze, as a gentle breeze makes the water ripple. To Chinese musicians
and music lovers, the contentment of the wild geese represents the human heart.
The zither was also instrumental in communication between ancient scholars and artist. The
Stanzas of Plum Blossoms
, was based on an Eastern Jin Dynasty famous zither composition,
Three
One ) (-383).
桓伊王子猷
story of the poet Wang Ziyou () (c. 338-386) and the flute player Huan Yi (day
the poet was taking a boat trip when he overheard someone on the riverbank say Huan Yi was
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