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2021-01-21 04:56
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2021年1月21日发(作者:一百)

Confucius and Confucianism
The Person

Confucius (romanized from Chinese Kongzi
孔子


in 551 BC as the scion of an impoverished noble family in the state of Lu


during
the Spring and Autumn period. His personal name was Zhongni
仲尼

or Kong Qiu
孔丘
,
named
after
a
hill
in
the
region
(some
historians
say
his
shape
of
is
head
resembled this hill). He acted as granary overseer and later as minister in his home
state
of
Lu.
The
decline
of
moral
of
his
times
(rulers
enjoying
beautiful
dancers
instead of devoting to government) urged him to leave Lu and to wander around for
13 years from state to state, trying to persuade the rulers to follow his proposals for
morally correct politics. Disappointed by the unsuccessful admonishings, he returned
to Lu and is said to have died in 479 BC, being buried in Qufu
曲阜
/Shandong where
his
descendants
still
live
today.
His
teachings
are
conserved
in
the
so-called

Lunyu

論語
, and the collections
Kongzi Jiayu

孔子家語
,
Kongcongzi


叢子
,
and
Kongzi
Jiyu

孔子集語
.
But
he
is
also
said
to
have
revised
the
so-called
Confucian
Classics,
the
Shu


,
Yi


,
Shi


,
Li


,
Chunqiu

春秋
,
and
a
book
about ritual music
Yue


.

His Teachings

Already
as
a
small
official,
Confucius
was
famous
for
his
expertise
in
matters
of
culture,
ceremonies
and
rites.
This
knowledge
was
the
only
weapon
he
could
use
trying to prevent the social downfall of his class, the lower aristocracy. In a multistate
world
where
the
rulers
started
to
make
use
of
state-employed
officials
instead
of
hereditary
nobles,
Confucius
looked
for
the
ideals
of
the
old
times
to
conserve
the
ever- changing
new
society.
Social
chaos,
despot
and
repression
endangered
the
security
of
the
daily
life.
In
his
dreams
for
a
better
society,
Confucius
called
for
a
rectification of names (
zhengming

正名
), for a newly built social hierarchy by what
everybody
had
his
fixed
position
to
his
neighbors,
relatives,
superiors
and
subordinated,
with
all
his
rights
and
duties.
The
right

had
social,
spiritual,
ritual
and
normative
meaning.
According
to
everybody's
rank,
man
had
to
use
a

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certain etiquette (
li


, a term originally meaning
righteous
(
yi


),
this
means,
to
behave
with
all
moral
qualities
in
every
concrete
situation.
All
these
duties
seem
to
be
a
suppression
of
freedom
in
later
orthodox
Confucianism,
but
they
were
meant
as
a
protection
from
arbitrariness:
The
most
superior person, the ruler, had not only to use ritual etiquette against his ancestors, but
he
had
to
exert
a
human
(
ren


)
government,
like
the
father
had
to
show
benevolence (
ci


) to an obedient son. Power and superiority, in Confucius' thinking,
is
not
severed
from
reciprocity,
the
dividing
etiquette
is
mitigated
by
humanity.
Obedience
by
the
people
is
answered
by
imperial
generosity,
the
ruler
had
to
be
a
morally shining example for everybody from top to bottom. Thus, the powerful had
always to act with self-restraint and modesty. Education of the self was a central point
in
a
person's
life,
music
was
of
great
importance
to
create
order
and
harmony
in
society. Only a few persons could try to become a noble person (
junzi

君子
), exerting
virtue (
de


) against the society, loyalty (
zhong


) to the sovereign and filial piety
(
xiao


) to his parents. Confucian loyalty is in no way a kind of slavish obedience,
but even lays the duty upon man to criticize his own father or ruler if necessary.
Mutual responsiveness in a system of fixed positions was the condition of a tranquil
and peaceful society in Confucius' thinking.

From a Small Philosopher to a God

Like
many
philosophers
and
religion
founders,
there
is
a
contrast
of
the
practical
successfulness
of
Confucius
and
is
posthumous
religious
veneration.
He
died,
disappointed by the way the rulers of the contending states tried to
gain
power and
might, giving up any human and social thinking. During the Han Dynasty, Confucian
thinking (Confucianism;
rujiao

儒教

or
ruxue

儒學
) became state doctrine, but like
every great religion, it changed to be orthodox and rigid. The mutual responsiveness
gave
way
to
a
practice
of
simple
obedience.
From
the
Song
Dynasty
on,
when
Confucianism ran through a renaissance after the great age of Buddhism, it became a
bonding
agent
for
intellectual
and
national
unity,
an
exhibit
for
the
exclusivity
of
conservative Chinese culture.

2

Confucius is not only venerated as the Primary Teacher (
Xianshi

先師
), but also as
the Highest Saint (
Zhisheng

至聖
) among Chinese personalities. Confucius, we can
say,
is
the
nominal
father
of
Chinese
social
culture
(although
most
parts
of
his
philosophy are indeed not his own invention; he saw himself as a transmitter and not a
maker). Confucianism influences every part of the daily life, from the veneration of
the ancestors to the architecture.

Confucianism as State Doctrine

The vast
empire of the
Han Dynasty made it necessary to
rely on a
well
organized
scholarship
elite
that
also
was
able
to
supply
administrative
officials.
Only
the
well-read Confucian scholars (
rujia

儒家
) were able to fulfill such an immense task.
Their
deep
knowledge
of
the
old
writings
provided
the
emperors
with
the
needed
Heaven
approved
authority
to
lead
the
government
of
the
empire.
The
dynastic
calendar
and
yearly
ritual
offerings
to
Heaven
and
Earth
all
based
upon
the
old
Confucian classical writings.
After
the
end
of
Han
Dynasty,
war
and
short
lived
dynasties
ruled
over
a
divided
China. People took refuge to
Daoism and Buddhism, both religions that could meet
the people's desire for a spiritual world and for religion. Except ancestor veneration,
Confucianism
does
not
care
about
the
world
after
death.
Again
under
the
Tang
Dynasty, Confucianism could gain back its former place as state doctrine, but it was
now only one of three systems of thought, side by side with Daoism and Buddhism.
Buddhism
fell
into
disgrace
during
the
second
half
of
the
Tang
Dynasty,
because
emperors, empresses and the nobility spent their wealth to protect monasteries and to
have
created
huge
Buddhist
sculptures,
and
because
many
people
joined
the
monasteries
to
escape
tax
paying
and
military
service.
Daoism
as
a
religion
and
philosophy
of
the
individual
has
never
been
a
thinking
system
fitting
for
a
state
bureaucracy. It was the task of the Confucianists once more to engage as teachers for
a
ruling
elite,
educating
disciples
to
join
the
ranks
in
the
state
bureaucracy.
But
Confucian
scholars
of
the
Song
and
Ming
Dynasties
also
developed
philosophical
systems that showed a much wider world view than that of the old ritual experts of the

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