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2021-01-21 14:41
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2021年1月21日发(作者:电话本)


A Detailed Note for Modern Linguistics
Chapter 1: Introduction
the following terms:
1).
Linguistics
:It
is
generally
defined
as
the
scientific study of language.

2).
General

linguistics
:
The
study
of
language
as
a
whole is called general linguistics.
3).
Applied

linguistics
:
In
a
narrow
sense,
applied
linguistics
refers
to
the
application
of
linguistic
principles
and
theories
to
language
teaching
and
learning,
especially
the
teaching
of
foreign
and
second
languages.
In
a
broad
sense,
it
refers
to the
application
of
linguistic
findings
to
the
solution
of
practical
problems
such
as
the
recovery
of
speech
ability.
4).
Synchron
ic
st
udy
: The study of a language at
some
point
in
time.
e.g.
A
study
of
the
features
of
the
English
used
in
Shakespeare‘s
time
is
a
synchronic study.
5).
Diachroni
c
s
tudy
: The study of a language as it
changes
through
time.
A
diachronic
study
of
language
is
a
historical
study,
which
studies
the
historical development of language over a period of
time.
e.g.
a
study
of
the
changes
English
has
undergone since Shakespeare‘s time
is a diachronic
study.
6).
Languag
e
c
ompetence
:
The
ideal
user

s
2).
auditory phonetics
: It studies the speech sounds
from
the
hearer‘s
point
of
view.
It
studies
how
the
sounds are perceived by the hearer.

3).acoustic
phonetics:
It
studies
the
speech
sounds
by
looking
at
the
sound
waves.
It
studies
the
physical
means
by
which
speech
sounds
are
transmitted
through
the
air
from
one
person
to
another.
4).
international
phonetic
alphabet
[IPA]
:
It
is
a
standardized and
internationally accepted system
of
phonetic transcription.
5).
Broad
transcription
:
the
transcription
with
letter-symbols
only,
i.e.
one
letter-symbol
for
one
sound.
This
is
the
transcription
normally
used
in
dictionaries and teaching textbooks.
6).
Narrow
transcription
:
is
the
transcription
with
letter- symbols
together
with
the
diacritics.
This
is
the
transcription
used
by
the
phoneticians
in
their
study of speech sounds.
7).
diacritics
: is a set of symbols which can be added
to the letter- symbols to make finer distinctions than
the letters alone make possible.
8).
Voiceless

清音)
: when the vocal cords are drawn
wide
apart,
letting
air
go
through
without
causing
vibration,
the
sounds
produced
in
such
a
condition
are called voiceless sounds.
9).
Voicing

(浊音)
:
Sounds
produced
while
the
2
.Morpheme
:Morpheme is the smallest meaningful
unit of language and it is the basic unit in the study
of morphology .
3
.free
Morpheme:

they
are
independent
units
of
meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.
4
.bound
morpheme:
the
morphemes
that
can

t
be
used
by
themselves,
but
must
be
combined
with
other
morphemes
to
form
words
that
can
be
used
independently .
5
.root
: a root is often seen as part of a word :it can
never stand by
itself although
it bears clear,definite
meaning :it
must be combined with another root or
an affix to form a word .
6
.Affix
:
there
are
two
types
of
affixes:inflectional
and
derivational
.Inflectional
affixes

manifest
various
grammatical
relations
or
grammatical
categories such as number, tense, degree and case.

7
.Derivational
affixes
:
which
are
added
to
an
existing form to create a word. Such a way of word
formation
is
called
derivation
and
the
new
word
formed by derivation is called
derivative.


8
.Stem:

The
existing
form
to
which
a
derivational
affix can be added .
9
.Prefixes
:it
occur
at the
beginning
of
a
word,
and
they modify the meaning of the stem but usually do
not change the part of speech of the original word.
9
.Suffixes
:Suffixes
occur
at the
end
of
a
word
and
they modify the meaning of the original word and in
many cases change its part of speech.
10
.Compounding
:is a popular and important way of
forming new words in English. It is the combination
of two or sometimes more than two words to create
new words .













Chapter 4 Syntax


1
.Syntax

:Syntax
is
the
subfield
of
linguistics
that
studies sentence structure of language.
2
.Sentence
:a
sentence
is
a
structurally
independent
unit
that
usually
comprise
a
number
of
words
to
form a complete statement ,question or command.
3
.simple
sentence
:
a
simple
sentence
consist
of
a
single
clause
which
contains
a
subject
and
a
predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.
4
.Coordinate sentence
: contains two clauses joined
by
a
linking
word
called
coordinating
conjunction,
such
as

and

,

but

,

or

.The
two
clauses
in
a
coordinate
sentence
are
structurally
equal
parts
of
the sentence.
5.
complex
sentence:

a
complex
sentence
contains
two
,or
more
clauses,
one of
which
is
incorporated
into
the
other
.The
incorporated,
or
subordinate
clause
is
normally
called
an
embedded
clause,and
the
clause
into
which
it
is
embedded
is
called
a
matrix clause.

6
.linear
:when a sentence is uttered or writeen down,
the
words
of
the
sentence
are
produced
one
after
another
in
a
sequence
.This
sequential
order
of
words in a sentence suggests that the structure of a
sentence
is
linear,eg,the
student
likes
the
new
linguistics professor.

7
.hierarchical
:sentence are not only linearly-structu
Cturered
but
also
hierarchically-structured.
That
is
to
say
,setences
are
organized
with
words
of
the
same
syntactic
categories
,such
as
noun
phrase
or
verb phrase grouped together, such as ,John, Mary

And Susan went to the linguistics lecture.
Diagrams: The hierarchical order can be best
illustrated
with
a
tree
diagram
of
constituent
structure,
so
called
because
such
a
diagram
looks
like an inverted tree.
9
.Major
lexical
categories
:
Major
categories
are
open
categories
in
the
sense
that
new
words
are
constantly added. There are four major noun,verb ,
Adjective and adverb.
10
.Minor lexical categories:
Minor lexical category
Es are cloased categories the number of the lexical

Items
in
these
categories
in
fixed
and
no
new
members are allowed for .English has six minor

Lexical categories ,they are determiner, auxiliary,
Preposition, pronur,conjunction, interjection.
11.
Phrasal
categories:

there
are
four
phrasal
categories in English and they are noun phrase,verb

Phrase,prpositional phrase, and adjective phrase.
12
.Grammatical
relation
s:Our
linguistic
knowledge
includes
an
awareness
of
a
distinction
between
the
structural
and
logical
functional
relations of constituents .
13
.combination
rules:

are
the
rules
that
group
words and phrases to form grammatical sentences.
14
.Phrase structure rules
: is a linear formula may
be
called
a
phrase
structural
rule,
or
rewrite
rule
such as,S-NP VP, the arrow is read as

consist of

or
is

Writeen
as
so
the
rule
is
read


a
sentence
consist
of
,or
is
rewriteen
as
,
a
noun
phrase
and
a
verb
phrase.
15
.Synatactic
movement
:
When
a
constituent
in
a
sentence
moves
out
of
its
original
place
to
a
new
position .
16.
D-structure:

one
exists
before
movement
takes
place
and
this
syntactic
representation
is
termed
as
D-structure. With the insertion of the lexicon ,
Generate sentences at the level of D-struction .
17
.S-structure:

the
one
occurs
after
movement
takes
place
and
this
syntactic
movement
rules
transforms a sentences from the level of D-structure
to that s-structure .
18.
Universal
grammar

:
since
1980
,Noam
Chomsky
and
other
generative
linguists
proposed
and
developed
a
theory
of
universal
grammar(UG)
known
as
the
principles-and- parameters
theory.
US
is
a
system
of
linguistic
knowledge
and
a
human
species-specific
gift
which
exists
in
the
mind
or
brain of a normal human being.
19.
Move a
: a general movement rule accouting for
the syntactic behavior of any constituent movements
20.
Case
condition
:
a
noun
phrase
must
have
case
and
case
is
assigned
by
verb
or
preposition
to
the
object position ,or by AUX to the subject position.
21.
Adjacency
condition
:
on
case
assignment,
which states that a case assignor and a case recipient
should stay adjacent to each other .
22
.linguistic
competence
:
as
the
ideal
user

s
knowledge
of
the
rules
of
his
language
and
performance

are
the
actual
realization
of
this
knowledge in linguistic communication.
ormation
rule:
syntactic
movement
is
governed
by
transformational
rules.
The
operation
of
the
transformational
rules
may
change
the
syntactic representation of a sentence .














Chapter 5 Semantics

1
.semantics:can

be
simply
defined
as
the
study
of
meaning in language .
2
.the
naming
theory
:this
theory
was
proposed
by
the ancient Greek scholar Plato. The linguistic forms
or
symbols,
in
other
words,
the
words
used
in
a
language
are
taken
to
be
labels
of
the
objects
they
stand
for,
so
words
are
just
name
or
labels
for
things.
3.

The conceptualist view(
意念论
):
was holds that
there is no direct link between a linguistic form and
what it refers to (i.e., between language and the real
world);
rather,
in
the
interpretation
(解释)

of
meaning
they
are
linked
through
the
mediation
of
concepts
in
the
mind.
This
view
is
suggested
by
Ogden and Richards.
4.
Contextualism(
语境论
)

contextualism is based
on the presumption(
假定
)that one can derive(
推导
)
meaning
from
or
reduce
meaning
to
observable(




)
contexts.
Two
kinds
of
context
are
recognized, the situational context and the linguistic
context.

5.
Behaviorism(
行为主义论
):

behaviorism
refers
to
the
attempt(
企图
)
to
define
the
meaning
of
a
language form as the ―situation in which the speaker
utter
it
and
the
response
it
calls
forth
in
the
hearer‖(Bloomfied,1933).
This
theory
somewhat
close
to
contextualism
emphasizes
on
the
psychological response.
6.
Sense(
意义
)
:Sense is concerned with the inherent
meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of
all
the
features
of
the
linguistic
form;
it
is
abstract
and de- contextualized.
7

Reference
:Reference
means
what
a
linguistic
form refers to in the real physical world:it deals with
the
relationship
between
the
linguistic
element
and
the non- linguistic world of experience.
8.
Synonymy

:Synonymy
refers
to
the
sameness
or
close
similarity
of
meaning.
Words
are
close
in
meaning are called synonyms.
a.
dialectal
synonyms-
synonyms
used
in
different
regional dialects.
b.
stylistic
synonyms
-Synonyms
differing
in
style,words having the same
meaning
may differ in
style.
c
.synonyms
that
differ
in
their
emotive
or
evaluative

meaning, words have the same
meaning
but express different emotions .
d
.collocational synonyms
--- some synonyms differ
in
their
collocation,
in
the
words
they
go
together
with .
e
.semantically different synonyms

differ slightly
in what they mean.
8
.Plysem

different words have the same or similar
meaning, while same one word may have more than
one meaning. Such a word is called polysemic word.
9
.Ho monymy-
(同音
/
同行关系)
----refers
to
the
phenomenon
that
words
having
different
meanings
have
the
same
form,
two
words
are
indentical
in
speeling,called
homographs,
identical
in
sound
,different
spelling
called
homophones,
both
sounds and spelling called complete homonymys.
10
.Hyponymy(
上下次关系
)
-It
refers
to
the
sense
relation
between
a
more
general,
more
inclusive
word and a more specific word. The word which is
more
general
called
superordinate,
and
the
more
specific
words
are
called
its
hyponyms.
Hyponyms
of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each
other .
11
.Antonymy

(



)i t
is
used
for
the
oppositeness of
meaning:words that are opposite in
meaning
are
ms
can
be
divided
into
gradable
antonymys,
such
as
old
and
young,
complementary
antonyms,
such
as
alive
and
dead,
relational opposite such as father and son.

12
.componential analysis (
语义成分分析
)

a way
to
analysis
lexical
meaning
and
its
is
a
way
proposed
by
the
structural
semanticists
to
analyze
word
meaning.
The
approach
is
based
upon
the
belief
that the
meaning
of
a
word
can
be
dissected
into meaning components, called semantic feature.
13
.Predication(
述谓分析
)
----In
semantic
analysis
of a sentence , the basic unit
is called predication ,
which is abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. A
predication consist of arguments and predication .

Chapter 6 Pragmatics
vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.
knowledge
of
the
rules
of
his
language.
A
10).
Vowel
:
the
sounds
in
production
of
which
no
transformational-generative
grammar
(转化生成语
articulators
come
very
close
together
and
the
air
法)
is a model of language competence.
stream
passes
through
the
vocal
tract
without
7).
Language
performance
:
performance
is
the
obstruction are called vowels.
actual
realization
of
the
ideal
language
user‘s
11).
Consonants
:
the
sounds
in
the
production
of
knowledge of the rules in linguistic communication.

which
there
is
an
obstruction
of
the
air
stream
at
8).
Langue
: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic
some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.
system
shared
by
all
the
members
of
a
speech
12).
phonology
:
Phonology
studies
the
system
of
community;
Langue
is
the
set
of
conventions
and
sounds of a particular
language;
it aims to discover
rules
which
language
users
all
have
to
follow;
how speech sounds in a language form patterns and
Langue
is
relatively
stable,
it
does
not
change
how
these
sounds
are
used
to
convey
meaning
in
linguistic communication.
frequently.
9).
Parole
: Parole refers to the realization of
langue
13).
phone
:
Phones
can
be
simply
defined
as
the
in
actual
use;
parole
is
the
concrete
use
of
the
speech sounds we use when speaking a language. A
conventions and the application of the rules; parole
phone
is
a
phonetic
unit
or
segment.
It
does
not
varies
from person to person, and
from situation to
necessarily distinguish meaning.
14).
phoneme
:
a
collection
of
abstract
phonetic
situation.
10).
Language
:
Language
is
a
system
of
arbitrary
features,
it
is
a
basic
unit
in
phonology.
It
is
represented
or
realized
as
a
certain
phone
by
a
vocal symbols used for human communication.
11).Arbitrariness: It is one of the design features of
certain phonetic context.
language.
It
means
that
there
is
no
logical
15).
allophone
:
The
different
phones
which
can
connection
between
meanings
and
sounds.
A
good
represent
a
phoneme
in
different
phonetic
example is the fact that different sounds are used to
environments
are
called
the
allophones
of
that
phoneme. For example [l] and [l]
refer to the same object in different languages.
12).
Productivity
:
Language
is
productive
or
16).
phonemic contrast
: Phonemic contrast refers to
creative
in
that
it
makes
possible
the
construction
the
relation
between
two
phonemes.
If
two
phonemes
can
occur
in
the
same
environment
and
and interpretation of new signals by its users.
13).
Duality
:
Language
is
a
system,
which
consists
distinguish meaning, they are in phonemic contrast.
of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds
17).
Complementary
distribution
:
refers
to
the
at
the
lower
or
basic
level,
and
the
other
of
relation
between
two
similar
phones
which
are
allophones of the same phoneme, and they occur in
meanings at the higher level.
14).
Displacement
: language can be used to refer to
different environments.
things
which
are
present
or
not
present,
real
or
18).
minimal
pair:

When
two
different
forms
are
imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in
identical in every way except for one sound segment
far- away
places.
In
other
words,
language
can
be
which
occurs
in
the
same
place
in
the
strings,
the
used
to
refer
to
contexts
removed
from
the
two
words
are
said
to
form
a
minimal
pair.
For
example: bin and pin.
immediate situations of the speaker.
15).
Cultura
l
t
ransmission
:
While
we
are
born
19).
suprasegmental
features
:
the
phonemic
with
the
ability
to
acquire
language,
the
details
of
features that occur
above
the
level
of
the
segments
any
language
are
not
genetically
transmitted,
but
are
called
suprasegmental
features.
The
main
suprasegmental
features
include
stress,
tone
and
instead have to be taught and learned.
16).
Desig
n
features
:
It
refers
to
the
defining
intonation.
properties
of
human
language
that
distinguish
it
20).
tone
:
Tones
are
pitch
variations,
which
are
caused
by
the
differing
rates
of
vibration
of
the
from any animal system of communication
ptive and descriptive : If a
linguistic study
vocal cords. Pitch variation can distinguish meaning
describes and analyzes the language people actually
just
like
phonemes.
The
meaning-distinctive
use, it is said to be descriptive: if it aims to lay down
function
of
the
tone
is
especially
important
in
tone
rules
for
correct
behaviour,
it
is
said
to
be
languages, for example, in Chinese.
prescriptive.
Modern
linguistics
is
mostly
21).
intonation
: When pitch, stress and sound length
are
tied
to
the
sentence
rather
than
the
word
in
descriptive.
ence and Performance: American linguist
isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.
y
defines
competence
as
the
ideal
user

s
For
example,
English
has
four
basic
types
of
knowledge
of
the
rules
of
his
language
,and
intonation:
the
falling
tone,
the
rising
tone,
the
performance
the
actual
realization
of
this
language
fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.

in linguistic comuunication .


Chapter 2: Phonology









Chapter3

Morphology

the terms:


1).
phonetics
:
Phonetics
is
defined
as
the
study
of
1
.Morphology:
It
is
a
branch
of
grammar
which
the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with
studies the internal structure of words and the rules
by which words are formed .
all the sounds that occur in the world‘ s languages


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