平方差-
大学英语词汇学期末考试
-
重点
复习资料整理
-
权威版
-
后附试
题
2012
词汇学复习资料
The development of the English Vocabulary
1.
Indo-European Language Family
The
Indo-European
Language
Family
is
considered
as
one
of
the
most
important
language
families.
It
includes
most
languages
of
Europe,
the
Near
East,
and
India.
Those
languages,
which
are
believed
to
have
originated
from
this
language
family
and
developed alone different lines, show various degrees
of
similarity
to
one
another.
They
fall
into
eight
principal
groups,
which
can
be
grouped
into
an
Eastern Set
东部诸语族
: Balto-Slavic
波罗的
-
斯拉夫
语
, Indo- Iranian
印度伊朗语族
, Armenian
亚美尼亚
语族
and
Albanian
阿尔巴尼亚语族
;
a
Western
Set:
西部诸语族
Celtic
凯尔特语族
,
Italic
意大利语族
,
Hellenic
希腊语族
,
Germanic
日尔曼语族
.
All
the
languages
in
both
sets
shed
some
influence
on
English to a greater or lesser extent because each has
lent words into the English vocabulary.
Prussian
普鲁士语
Lithuanian
立陶宛语
Polish
波兰语
Balto-Slavic
波罗的
-
斯拉夫语
Czech
捷克斯洛伐克语
Bulgarian
保加利亚语
Slovenian
斯洛文尼亚语
Russian
Albanian
阿尔巴尼
亚
Persian
波斯语
Hindi
北印度语
Indo-Iranian
印度伊
朗语系
Bengali
孟加拉语
Romany
，吉卜赛语
Armenian
亚美尼亚
语
Portuguese
Spanish
Italic
意
大
利
语
族
1
Italian
Roumanian
罗马尼亚语
French
Indo-European
Language Family
Irish
Breton
Scottish
Norwegian
挪威语
Icelandic
，冰岛语
Danish
丹麦语
Swedish
瑞典语
English
Dutch
Flemish
German
日
Celtic
凯
Germanic
尔
曼
尔
特
语
语
言
2
Hellenic
，
古
希
腊
语
- Greek
Chapter 1
A General Survey of A Word
The Definition of Word
?
A word is
(1)
A
minimal free form of a language;
(2)
a
sound unity;
(3)
a
unity of meaning;
(4)
a
form that can function alone in a sentence.
A
word
is
a
minimal
free
form
that
has
a
given sound and meaning and syntactic function.
A word is a smallest unit of a language.
1. The development of English vocabulary
The
history
of
English
language
can
be
divided
into 3 periods:
a/ Old English period (449
—
1100)
The former inhabitants, the Celtic, the Germanic
tribes
called
Angles,
Saxons
and
Jutes
Anglo-Saxon
as Old English, Old English contains 50-60 thousand
3
words, which consists of the basic word stock.
b/ Middle English period (1100-1500)
characterized
by
the
strong
influence
of
French
following the Norman Conquest in French
loan
words
were
found
in
law
and
governmental
administration (judge, justice)
c/ Modern English period (1500--)
the early stage of this period ( including the years
between
1500-1700),
the
Renaissance
brought
great
changes
to
the
vocabulary.
borrowing
from
Latin,
Latin
were
now
mostly
connected
with
science
and
abstract
ideas.
Greek
borrowings
were
mostly
literary, technical and scientific words
fication
of
English
Words
According
to
Different Criteria
A. By Origin: native words and loan (borrowed )
words
In
English
language,
most
native
words
in
Modern
English
are
monosyllabic.
They
form
the
great
majority
of
the
basic
word
stock
of
English
language.
4
The
fundamental
features
of
the
basic
word
stock
are:
1.
National
character;
2.
Stability;
3.
Word-forming
ability;
4.
Ability
to
form
collocations
Since the great majority of the basic word stock
are
native
words,
they
are
naturally
the
ones
used
most frequently in everyday speech and writing.
B. By level of usage
1.
Common
words
(
P11
words
connected
with
ordinary
things
or
activities
necessary
to
everyday
life:
“The
repeated
telephone
calls
only
annoyed me but made my sister very angry.”)
2. Literary words (P12 words are chiefly used in
writing,
formal
speeches,
e.g.
Feeling
fatigued,
Tom
retired
early.):
a.
Archaic
words;
b.
Poetical
words
See P13
3.
Colloquial
words:
Words
used
mainly
in
spoken
English,
in
conversation
among
friends
and
colleagues,e.g. “John was fired for petty thieving”
4. Slang words
C. By notion: function words and content ( P 17)
5
?
function
words
are
short
words
such
as
determiners,
meaning
?
Content
words
have
lexical
meaning,
such
as
nouns,
main
verbs,
adj
and
adv.e.g.
The
passerby was hit
by
the truck.
Chapter 2
Word- Structure and Word-Formation(1)
conjunctions,
prepositions,
auxiliaries,
and
so
on,
they
serve
grammatical
1. The definition of morpheme
1.1 What is the smallest meaningful linguistic unit of
language?- morpheme
What
are
words
composed
of?
-
Words
are
formed
by
morphemes.
A
word
is
the
smallest
unit
that stands alone to communicate meaning.
1.2 What are the Chinese equivalents of morpheme?
语素
词素
-
形位
2.1
Morphemes
may
be
classified
into
free
and
bound.
Free morphemes, also called content morphemes,
may
constitute
words
by
themselves.
These
morphemes
have
complete
meanings
in
themselves
and
can
be
used
as
free
grammatical
units
in
sentences.
So
we
may
say
that
free
morphemes
are
free roots.
6
Bound morphemes = Bound root + affixes, known as
grammatical
morphemes,
must
appear
with
at
least
one
other
morpheme,
either
free
or
bound.
Bound
morphemes
are
chiefly
found
in
derived
words,
e.g.
recollection, idealistic, ex-prisoner
2.2 Morphemes may also be classified into roots (or
root
morphemes)
and
affixes
(or
affixational
morphemes).
Task:
(1) Read the following words and find the root in
each word.
heart, hearten, dishearten, heartless, hearty,
heartiness,
sweetheart,
heartbroken,
kind-hearted,
whole-heartedly.
(2) What is your definition of root?
A
root
is
the
part
of
the
word-form
which
remains when all the affixes have been removed.
(3) Is a root necessarily a free morpheme? Why?
2.2.1 Two types of roots
- Free root
In English, many roots are free morphemes, such
as black in black, blackboard, blacksmith.
- Bound root
However, there are quite a number of roots which
cannot exist on their own and thus belong to the class
of bound
morphemes. For example, ceive in receive,
7
conceive,
perceive,
deceive;
mit
in
permit,
commit,
submit; tain in retain, contain, maintain; cur in recur,
occur, incur, etc.
these roots cannot be used to form new words.
2.2.2 Two types of affixes
Affix is a collective term for the type of formative
(
构词成分
)
that
can
be
used
only
when
added
to
another morpheme.
-
Inflectional
affixes
(or
inflectional
morphemes)
serve to express
the following meanings:
(1) plurality: e.g. -s in chairs, pens; -es in
boxes, tomatoes;
en in oxen.
(2)
the
genitive
case:
e.g.
’s
in
boy’s,
children’s.
(3) the verbal endings: for example,
a.
-(e)s
in
words
like
eats,
teaches shows the third person
singular present tense.
b.
-ing
in
words
like
eating,
teaching shows the present
participle or gerund.
c.
-(e)d
in
words
like
worked,
saved shows the past tense or past
participle.
(4)
the
comparative
and
superlative
degrees:
e.g.
-er
in
words
like
smaller,
harder; -est in words like smallest,
8
hardest.
-
Derivational
affixes
(or
derivational
morphemes)
can be further divided into prefixes and suffixes.
?
(1)
Prefixes
are
affixes
before
the
root,
e.g:
unjust, rewrite.
As
a
rule,
most
prefixes
modify
the
meaning
of
roots,
but
not
their
parts
of
speech.
task: list some prefixes that can modify the parts of
speech.
-
en-(em-)
as
in
words
like
embody,
enrich
-
be-
as in words like befriend, belittle
-
a- as in words like asleep, aside
?
(2)
Suffixes
are
affixes
after
the
root,
e.g.:
darkness,
worker.
By the addition of the suffix,
the
word
is
usually
changed
from
one part of
morpheme
speech into another, e.g. liberation,
free
bound
modernize.
2.3
Bound root
Relationship
between
the
derivational affixes
two
classifications
of
inflectional affixes
morphemes
prefixes
suffixes
9
Morpheme
It
is
the
minimal
meaningful
unit
of
language.
Or
it
is
the
smallest
functioning
unit
in
the
composition of words.
a)
Bound morphemes are morphemes which alone
can be used as words.
What is an allomorph?
An
allomorph
is
one
of
the
variants
of
the
same
morpheme.
语素
/
形位变体是同一个语素的不同形式。
?
A morpheme may take various shapes or forms.
3.5 Morpheme and Word-formation
In
word-formation,
morphemes
are
labeled
root,
stem, base and affix.
在构词法中
,
语素被分为词根、词干、词基和词缀。
?
Two types of affixes:
Inflectional
affixes
and
Derivational
affixes
屈
折词缀和派生词缀
?
Inflectional
affixes
function
as
grammatical
markers.
表示词的语法意义的是屈折词缀。
-s ,-es ,ing,-er ,or -(e)d,est
10
Derivational affixes or derivational morphemes
They
can
be
further
divided
into
prefixes
and
suffixes.
(1) Prefixes are affixes before the root.
e.g.
，
unjust, rewrite.
As
a
rule,
most
prefixes
modify
the
meaning
of
roots, but not their parts of speech.
(2) Suffixes are affixes after the root
By
the
addition
of
the
suffix,
the
word
is
usually
changed
from
one
part
of
speech
into
another,
e.g.
liberation, modernize.
Root, stem, base
词根、词干、词基
A root is that part of a word form that remains when
all
inflectional
and
derivational
affixes
have
been
removed.
词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后
所剩余的那部分。
?
A
stem
is
that
part
of
the
word-form
which
remains
when
all
inflectional
affixes
have
been
removed.
词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余
的那部分。
?
A
base
refers
to
a
form
to
which
affixes
of
any
kind
(both
derivational
and
inflectional)
can
be
added. It can be a root or a stem.
?
词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。
?
词根是所有屈折词缀和派生词缀被去掉后所剩
余的那部分。
?
词干是所有屈折词缀被去掉后所剩余的那部分。
11
?
词基是任何一种词缀都可加在上面的形式。
它与词根有区别，因为它是可以从派生角度进行
分析的形式，
在 上面可以加上派生词缀。
但是词根则
不容许做进一步的分析。
词基与词干也是不同的，
因
为派生词缀和屈折词缀都可以加在词基上，
而只有屈
折词缀可以加在词干上 。
Task:
Analyse
the
word
in
terms
of
root,
stem
and
base.
undesirable (n.):
不是词根
（可再分解）
；
是词干
（可
以加屈折词缀，如名词复数
-s
）
，也是词基。
free morpheme
(
自由形位
)
Morpheme:
bound root (
粘附词根
)
(
形
位
)
bound
morpheme
（
粘
附
形
位
）
inflectional affix
（屈折词缀）
affix
prefix
（前缀）
（
derivational affix
12
词
缀
）
（
派
生
词缀）
suffix
（后缀）
1.
Affixation (derivation)
词缀法
Affixation
is
generally
defined
as
the
formation
of
words
by
adding
word-forming
or
derivational
affixes
to
stems.
This
process
is
also
known
as
derivation,
for
new
words
created
in
this
way
are
derived
from
old
forms.
According
to
the
positions
that affixes occupy in words, affixation falls into two
subclasses; prefixation and suffixation.
Prefixation:
Prefix
do
not
generally
change
the
word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning.
However,
present-day
English
finds
an
increasing
number of class-changing prefixes. e. g. asleep a (a- +
v), encourage V (en- + n), unearth V (un- + n), de-oil
V
(de-
+
n),
postwar
a
(post-
+
n),
intercollege
a
(inter-
+
n)
and
others.
These
make
up
only
an
insignificant
number
in
the
huge
contemporary
vocabulary
The
majority
of
prefixes
are
characterized
by
their
non-class-changing
nature.
Their chief function is to change the meaning of the
stems.
Suffixation: Suffixes have only a small semantic role;
their primary function is to change the grammatical
13
function of stems. They mainly change the word class.
Therefore, we shall group suffixes on a grammatical
basis into four groups.
2.
compounding
Compounding,
also
called
composition,
is
the
formation
of
new
words
by
joining
two
or
more
stems.
Words
formed
in
this
way
are
called
compounds.
So
a
compound
is
a
'lexical
unit
consisting
of
more
than
one
stem
and
functioning
both
grammatically
and
semantically
as
a
single
word' (Quirk et al 1985).
Silkworm
蚕
and
hone-ybee
蜜蜂
are
compounds;
so
are
tear
gas
催泪
and
easy
chair
安乐椅
.
These examples show that compounds
can
be
written
solid
(silkworm),
hyphenated(honey-bee) and open (tear gas and easy
chair)
As open compounds are the same in form as
free phrases, what is the dividing line between them?
2.1
Characteristics of Compounds
Compounds differ from free phrases in the following
three aspects.
1.
Phonetic
features
In
compounds
the
word
stress usually occurs on the first element whereas in
14
noun
phrases
the
second
element
is
generally
stressed
if
there
is
only
one
stress
In
cases
of
two
stresses, the compound has the primary stress on the
first element and the secondary stress, if any, on the
second
whereas the
opposite
is
true
of
free
phrases,
e.g.
Compound
Free phrase
a 'hot
1
house
温房
,
暖房
,
干燥室
a hot 'house
a 'black horse a black 'horse
a 'green room
a green 'room
But
these
stress
patterns
of
compounds
are
not
absolute. Sometimes, the primary stress may also fall
on
the
second
element
as
in
ash-'blonde
灰银
and
,
bottle- 'green
深绿色的
as well as in combining-form
compounds,
socio-lin
'guistic,
psycho-a
'nalysis.
Therefore, this is not always reliable.
2.
Semantic
features
Compounds
are
different from free phrases in semantic unity. Every
compound
should
express
a
single
idea
just
as
one
word.
For
instance,
a
green
hand
is
an
'inexperienced
person',
not
a
hand
that
is
green
in
colour;
red
meat
refers
to
'beef'
or
'lamb'
rather
15
than any meat that is red in colour; hot dog is by no
means
a
dog
that
is
hot,
but
a
typical
American
sausage
in
between
two
pieces
of
bread.
The
meanings of such examples cannot be easily inferred
from the two components of the compounds.
Nevertheless,
a
lot
of
compounds
are
transparent,
that is the meaning can be inferred from the separate
elements
of
compounds.
Consider
the
following
random
examples:
disaster-
related,
flower
pot,
washing machine, dumb show
哑剧
, scarlet fever
猩
红热
and
many
others.
But
the
two
elements
are
inseparable
and
the
change
of
the
element
would
result in the loss of the original identity.
3.
Grammatical
features
A
compound
tends
to
play
a
single
grammatical
role
in
a
sentence,
for
example, a verb, a noun, or an adjective. Bad-mouth
used as a verb can take the third person singular -s
and the past tense marker -ed, e. g. 'He bad-mouthed
me.
苛刻批评
' (Bolinger and Sears 1981) Compound
nouns show their plural forms by taking inflectional
-s at the end, e.g. new-borns, three-year-olds, will-o '
-the-wisps,
major
generals.
少将
Of
course,
there
16
are
exceptions
such
as
brothers-in- law,
lookers-on .
In
spite
of
this
their
single
grammatical
role
is
apparent.
In adjective- noun compounds, the adjective element
cannot take inflectional suffixes, for example:
Compound
Free phrase
fine art
美术
finer art
美艺术
red tape
官样文章
reddest tape
最红带子
hot line
hotter line
线路
,
航线
3.
Conversion
Conversion
is
the
formation
of
new
words
by
converting words of one class to another class. This is
a method of turning words of one part of speech to
those of a different part of speech. These words are
new only in a grammatical sense. Since the words do
not
change
in
morphological
structure
but
in
function,
this
process
is
also
known
as
functional
shift.
Look
at
the
word
round
in
the
following
sentences:
[4a] He was knocked out in the first round.
17
[ 4b] Round the number off to the nearest tenth.
[4c] The neighbours gathered round our barbecue.
[4d] The moon was bright and round.
[4e] People came from all the country round.
(from Lodwig & Barrett 1973)
4.
Blending
拼缀法
4.1 What is blending?
Blending
is
a
process
of
word-formation
in
which a new word is formed from two words, one
of which is not in its full form or both of which are
not in their full forms. The result of such a process
is
called
a
blend,
which
combines
the
sounds
and
the meaning of two others.
The
majority
of
blends
are
nouns,
very
few
are
verbs and adjectives are even fewer. According to
structure, blends fall into four major groups.
4.2 Classification of blending
Structurally, blends can be subdivided into
the following five groups:
(1)
The
first
part
of
the
first
word
+
the
last
part of the second one: head + tail
Chinglish, smog
(2)
First part of the first word + first part of the
second word: head + head
sci-fi, telecon
18
(3)
Whole
form
of
the
first
word
+
last
part
of
the second one: word + tail
newscast, workfare
(4)
First
part
of
the
first
word
+
whole
form
of
the second one: head + word
heliport, telediagnosis
(5) Whole form of the first word + first part of
the second one: word+
head
skylab
?
M
any blends have only a very short life and are
very informal. They are particularly common in
commercial and journalistic language.
5.
Clipping
Another common way of making a word is to shorten
a
longer
word
by
cutting
a
part
of
the original
and
using what remains instead. In modern times, people
tend to be economical in writing and speech to keep
up with the tempo of new life style. To save time one
is likely to clip words that are frequently used. There
are four common types of clipping:
(5)
Front Clipping
截前留后
Quake(earthquake)
copter
(helicopter)
scope (telescope)
phone (telephone)
gym (gymnastics)
(6)
Back clipping
截后留前
Dorm(dormitory)
memo(memorandum)
stereo (stereophonic)
19
disco(discotheque)
(7)
Front and back clipping
截前后留中间
Flu(influenza)
fridge ()refrigerator
(8)
Phrase clipping
截词组
Pub
(public
house)
zoo(zoological
garden)
pop(popular music) perm(permanent waves)
6.
Acronymy
首字母拼音法
Acronymy
is
the
process
of
forming
new
words
by
joining
the
initial
letters
of
names
of
social
and
political
organizations
or
special
noun
phrases
and
technical
ing
on
the
pronunciation,
words formed in this way are called initialisms
词首
字母缩略词
or acronyms
首字母拼音词
1)
Letters represent full words: VOA, BBC, c/o=
care of
由
...
转交
, p.c.= post card
2)
Letters represent constituents in a compound
or
just
parts
of
a
word:
TV
.
ID=identity
card,
GHQ= General Headquarters
.Acronyms A word formed from the initial letters but
pronounced as a normal word, such as radar for ra
dio
d etecting
a nd
r anging.
NATO, AIDS BASIC,TEFL
N-bomb, D-day, V-day
7.
Back- formation
逆构法
Words created through this way are mostly verbs.
Stylistically,
back-formed
words
are
largely
informal.
What is back-formation?
Back-formation
is
a
process
of
word
formation
20
by
which
a
word
is
created
by
the
deletion
of
the
supposed
affix.
For
instance,
the
verb
edit
was
formed
from editor
by
dropping
the
suffix
–
or.
The
verb
aggress
was
formed
from
the
noun
aggression
by removing the suffix
–
ion.
7.1 Types of back-formation
(1) Verbs backformed from nouns ending in
-er, -or, -ar:
cobbler
修鞋匠
---
to
cobbleTo
make
or
mend
(boots
or
shoes).
修：制造或修理（长统靴或鞋）
rover-
wanderer.
流浪汉；漫游者
--- to rove
bulldozer
推土机
--- to bulldozeTo clear, dig up, or
move with a bulldozer.
用推土机整地：用推土机消除、削平或挖出
sculptor
雕
塑
家
---
to
sculptTo
shape,
mold,
or
fashion especially with artistry or precision:
雕塑
diāosù
orator
演说者
,
演讲者
--- to orate
liar--- to lie
beggar--- to beg
(2) Verbs backformed from nouns ending
in -tion, -sion:
automation---
to
automate
to
control
or
operate by automation.
通过自动化控制或操作
destruction--- to destruct
negation--- to negate
donation--- to donate
television--- to televise
21
(3) Verbs backformed from abstract nouns:
diagnosis--- to diagnose
enthusiasm--- to enthuse
(4) Verbs backformed from adjectives:
drowsy- --to drowse
gloomy--- to gloom
lazy--- to laze
(5) Verbs backformed from compound words:
baby sitter---to baby-sit
house sitter--- to house sit
(6) Nouns backformed from adjectives:
gloomy--- gloom
greedy--- greed
(7)
Adjectives
backformed
from
noun/adverb/adjective:
difficulty--- difficult
utterly--- utter
unflappable
不
易
惊
慌
的
；
镇
定
的
---
flappable=Easily excited or upset.
易激动或不安的
Lecture 6
Word Meaning
1. The meanings of
“
meaning
”
(1)
Reference
所指
Reference is the relationship between language and
the
world
“
By
means
of
reference,
a
speaker
indicates
which
things
in
the
world
(including
persons)
are
being
talked
about.
”
Words
have
meaning only when they have acquired reference. In
22
other
words,
only
when
a
connection
has
been
established between the linguistic sign and a referent,
i.e. an object, a phenomenon, a person, etc. does the
sign become reference of a word to a
thing
outside
the
language
is
arbitrary
and
conventional.
This
connection
is
the
result
of
generalization
and abstraction,
but
with
the
help
of
context, it can refer to something specific.
The word
cat refers to a whole set of animal of the same species
without the distinction of size, colour, region, owner
and other is
the
extension of
all cats
in
the
universe.,
but
it
can
refers
to
a
particular
cat
in
‘Jean
forgot
to
feed
her
cat
yesterday.’
Therefore
,
meaning can be pinned down by the user, time, place,
cat
can
be
referred
to
animal,
my
dear,
Jassay, this, she and so on.
(2)
Sense
语义
Sense denotes the relationship inside the language.
It is an abstraction. Every word that has meaning
has
sense.(not
every
word
has
reference).
For
example,
probable, nearly, and, if, but, yes
, none of
which
refers
to
anything
in
the
word,
all
have
some
sense.
Just
as
one
can
talk
of
the
same
concept in different in different language, one can
talk
of
expressions
in
different
dialects
of
one
language
as
having
the
same
sense:
pavement
in
British English and sidewalk in American English
have the same sense.
1
．
Four types of motivation
Motivation
refers
to
the
connection
between
23
word-symbol and its meaning.
语言符号
,
In case of motivation, the great majority of English
words are not motivated
没有根据的
, since they are
conventional,
arbitrary
symbols.
Nevertheless,
English
does
have
words
whose
meaning
can
be
explained to a certain extent.
Motivation can arise in four major ways:
a)
Onomatopoetic Motivation
拟声理据
All
the
word
based
on
the
sounds
made
be
birds,
animals,
insects
and
so
on
belong
to
this
category.
But
such
echoic
words
are
largely
conventional,
or
the sounds we say in English may not be the same in
other language; baa-baa
does not mean
咩咩
- Primary Onomatopoeia
基本理据
It
means the imitation
of
sound
by
sound.
Here the
sound is truly an
“ echo to the meaning”.
e.g.
cats --
mew; miaow
dogs--
bow-wow; woof- woof
sheep--
baa-baa
pigeons-- coo
cow
--
moo
ducks
--
quark
- Secondary Onomatopoeia
次要理据
It
means
that
certain
sounds
and
sound-sequences are associated with certain senses
in an expressive relationship.
e.g. ding-dong
tick-tock
24
giggle- gaggle
b)
Morphological Motivation
形态理据
Compounds and derived words are multimorphemic
words and the meanings of many are the sum total of
the
morphemes
combined.
So
if
one
knows
the
meaning
of
each
morpheme,
namely
affix
or
stem,
one
can
figure
out
the
meaning
of
the
word.
e.g.
anticancer ( anti + cancer), readable
( read + able):
something
that
can
be
read,
toothache
(
tooth
+
ache )
In
a
word,
most
of
the
compound
words
are
morphologically
motivated,
some
are
not.
e.g.
egghead
(
书呆子）
is
a
compound
that
we
can
not
guess the meaning from the two free morphemes. It
is not motivated morphologically..
c)
Semantic Motivation
语义理据
Semantic
Motivation
refers
to
the
mental
association suggested by the conceptual meaning
of
a
word.
It
explains
the
connection
between
the literal sense and figurative sense of the word.
文字意义和比喻意义
A. metaphor
25
Metaphor
is
a
figure
of
speech
containing
an
implied
comparison,
in
which
a
word
or
phrase
ordinarily and primarily is used of one thing, now
is applied to another.
e.g.
The curtain of night has fallen.
All the world is a stage.
The leg of the table is broken.
B. metonymy (
借代）
Metonymy
is
the
device
in
which
we
name
something
by
one
of
its
attributes
(
特
征
,
as
crown for king).
e.g. He succeeded to the crown.
The kettle boils.
( kettle for water)
C. synecdoche (
提喻）
It means using a part for a whole, an individual for
a
class,
a
material
for
a
thing
or
the
reverse
of
these.
e.g.
bread for food;
Beijing for China
Washington for the US
D. analogy (
类比）
Analogy is a process whereby words are created in
imitation of other words.
e.g. marathon[
体
]
马拉松赛跑
–
telethon
长期连续
电视节目
, talkathon
冗长的讨论
,
冗长的演说
More examples are :
black list
–
white list
白名单
(
如守法人士
,
合法机构
,
可雇佣人员
,
可上映的电
影、节目、可照顾的企业、工会满意的机构等等的
名单
,
为
blacklist
黑名单之对
),
gray
list(
灰名
26
单，指非明文查禁但仍属不合法的人和物
From
white-collar
or
blue-collar
workers
we
have gray- collar workers (
服务行业的职工
).
数字类比
:ther examples are: First Mother to First
Family, then to First Lady;
the
First
world
—
the
second
world
–
the
third
world
–
the Fourth World;
the
three
P’s
(
peace,
petroleum,
Palestine)
and
the three I’s ( inflation, interest rate, impeachment
弹劾
)
are
from
the
three
R’s
（
reading,
writing,
arithmetic
算）
地点空间类比
:arscape
火星
and
moonscape
are
from landscape
earthrise is from sunrise
d)
Etymological Motivation
The history of the word explains the meaning of
the
word.
All
the
words
commonized
from
the
proper
nouns
can
be
interpreted
in
terms
of
their
word
Laconic
meaning
‘brief’
or
‘short’
is
derived
from
Lacons,
a
tribe
of
people
who
were
known
for
their
‘brevity
of
speech’ and for their habit of never using more
words than necessary.
2
．
Types of meaning
Word meaning is made up of various components
27
which
are
interrelated
and
interdependent.
These
components
are
commonly
described
as
types
of
meaning.
1)
G
rammatical meaning
语法意义
Grammatical meaning refers to that part of the
meaning
of
the
word
that
indicates
grammatical
concept
or
relationships.
They
become
important
only
when
they
are
used
in
actual
context.
Grammatical meaning consists of word- class
词类
and
inflectional paradigm(
词形变换表
).
a) word-class:
In
the
dictionary,
words
are
often
described
by
heir
lexical
meanings
and
also
by
what
is
traditionally
known
as
the
part
of
speech,
which
modern
linguists
call
the
word-class.
e.g.:
realize
will be marked as a verb and
realization
as a noun.
When
we
use
a
word,
we
have
to
consider
two
essential factors: its lexical meaning and its part of
speech.
Lexical
meaning
is
dominant
in
content
words, whereas grammatical meaning is dominant
in
function
words.
We
can
never
use
words
correctly without knowing their word-classes.
b.) Inflectional paradigm:
词形变换
The set of grammatical forms of a word( mainly
nouns
and
verbs)
is
called
inflectional
paradigm
paradigm.
e.g.
:
to
work,
works,
worked,
working
;
to
write,
wrote, written,
etc. here are two sets of inflectional
28
paradigm changes. Nouns are declined(
词尾变化
),
verbs
are
conjugated(
词形变化
),
and
gradable
adjectives have degrees of comparison. The lexical
meaning
of
a
word
is
the
same
throughout
the
paradigm; that is to say, all the word-forms of one
and the same word have the same lexical meaning,
yet
the
grammatical
meaning
varies
from
one
word-form
to
another,
e.g.:
cat
is
grammatically
singular
in
meaning
while
cats
is
plural;
works
denotes
third
person,
singular,
present
tense,
whereas
worked
denotes past tense.
2)
L
exical meaning
词汇意义
Grammatical meaning surfaces only in use, but
lexical
meaning
is
constant
in
all
the
content
words within or
without
context as
it
is related
to
the
notion
that
the
word
conveys.
lexical
meaning
has
two
components:
Conceptual
meaning
概念意义
&
Associative
meaning
关联
意义
A Conceptual meaning, is the meaning given in
the
dictionary
and
forms
the
core
of
word
meaning.
Being
constant
and
relatively
stable,
forms the basis for communication as the same
word has the same conceptual meaning to all the
speakers
of
the
same
language.
For
example,’The sun rises in the east’ The word
sun
29
here means a heavenly body which gives of light,
heat, and energy.
B Associative meaning is the secondary meaning
supplemented
to
the
conceptual
meaning.
It
is
open-ended
and
indeterminate
不确定的
and
liable to the influence. It is liable to the influence
of
such
factors
as
culture,
experience,
religion,
geographical
region,
class
background,
education,
etc.
Associative
meaning
comprises
four types
A. Connotative meaning
Connotative
meaning(
内涵意义
):
Connotative
meaning
refers
to
the
emotional
association
which a word or a phrase suggests in one’s mind.
e.g. the denotative meaning of the word
mother
is
“
female
parent”,
but
it
generally
connotes
love,
care,
tenderness.,
forgiving
The
word
January denotes “ the first month of the year”,
but it connotes cold weather, a biting north wind,
snow,
central
heating,
skating
or
even
the
New
Year.
‘
home
’
,
the
conceptional
meaning
is
a
dwelling place
‘
different people may make out
more
sense
than
that.
It
may
remind
them
of
their
‘
family,
friends,
warmth,
safety,
love,
convenience.
These
connotations
are
implied
in
the
well-known
saying
‘
East
or
west,
home
is
best.
’
Connotative meaning is unstable, varying
considerably
according
to
culture,
historical
period,
and
the
experience
of
individual.
Suppose
a
child
is
prejudiced
against,
often
30
jeered at , beaten or scolded at home, then home
to him is nothing but
‘
a hell
’
B. Stylistic meaning
Social
or
stylistic
meaning(
文
体
意
义
):
words
used
in
different
contexts
or
situations
according
to
their
social
or
stylistic
meanings.
According
to
the
social
or
stylistic
meaning,
words may be grouped into 3 levels:
formal
neutral
informal
e.g.:
male
parent
father
daddy
ally
friend
buddy
What
’
s
the
stylistic
distinction
in
the
following
two sentence?
1.
They
chucked
a
stone
at
the
cops,
and
then
did a bunk with the loot.
2.
After
casting
a
stone
at
the
police,
they
absconded with money. Sentence 1 could be said
by
two
criminals,
talking
casually
about
the
crime afterwards, so all the words used in italics
are slangy, whereas sentence 2 might be said by
the chief inspector in making his official report,
and
thus
the
words
used
are
literary
(cast,
abscond) or neutral (police, money)
C.
Affective
meaning(
情
感
意
义
):
meaning
concerning
with
the
expression
of
feelings
and
attitudes
of
the
speaker
or
writer.
Affective
meaning of words may
fall
into two
categories:
31
appreciative or pejorative
a) appreciative
(
褒
义
词
):
words
are
used
to
express
the
speaker’s
appreciation or approval of the person
or
thing
such
as
famous,
determined,
slender.
black
b) pejorative
(
贬义词
):
words
used
to
show
disapproval
or
contempt
on
the
part
of
the
speaker.
such
as
notorious,
pigheaded
固执的
,
顽固的
,
skinny,
nigger,
etc.
A
B
appreciatory
words
derogatory
words
slender
skinny
statesman
politician
confidence
complacency
bachelor
girl
old maid
Note:
Affective
meaning
varies
from
individual
to
individual,
from
culture
to
culture,
from
generation to generation, from society to society.
In
most
Western
countries,
dog
is
32
associated
with
‘loyalty’,
‘faithfulness’,
‘a
close
companion whereas to Chinese, dog at its best is
useful
animal,
it
generally
generates
negative
association. If a person is compared to a dog, the
speaker’s attitude towards the person is no mor
e
than ‘contemptuous’
D. Collocative meaning
搭配意义
it is the part of the word- meaning suggested by
the words before or after the word in discussion.
Collocative
meaning
overlaps
with
stylistic
meaning
and
affective
meaning
because
in
a
sense
both
stylistic
and
affective
meanings
are
revealed by means of collocations. e.g.
pretty
and
handsome
share
the
conceptual
meaning
of
‘good
-looking
’but are distinguished by the range
of
nouns
they
collocate
with
.
A
pretty
woman
stresses the attractiveness of facial features
while
a handsome woman
may not be facially beautiful
yet
is
attractive
in
other
respects
:
a
slender
figure, posture, behaviour.
Lecture 7
Sense Relations and Semantic Field
语义关系和语义场
1
．
Polysemy
多义关系
Polysemy
means
that
one
single
word
has
two
or
more senses at the same time. The bulk of English
words are polysemantic; one
–
meaning words are
rare
and
are
mainly
scientific
terms
such
as
33
hydrogen, molecule, and so on.
Two processes of development
词汇发展的两种模式
Radiation
辐
射
型
：
Each
of
the
derived
meanings is directly connected to the primary
meaning.
Take head for example:
the
head
of
the
school,
six
pence
per
head,
a
head of cabbage.
一棵卷心菜
the head of a page, to
come to a head
到了紧要关头
; (
事情
)
成熟
;
达到顶
点
;
疮疖化脓
, to lose one’s head
被砍头
,
不知所措
,
six head of cattle. Though these senses have little in
common, they all derive from special application of
the central idea of head as a part of the body.
Concatenation
(
连
锁
型
):
It
describes
a
process
where
each
of
the
later
meaning
is
related only to the preceding one like chains.
Take board for example:
notice board, chessboard
棋盘
, cardboard
纸
板
,
sideboard
餐具柜
,
on
board,
board
and
lodging
提供食宿
, board of directors
董事会
As
can
be
seen,
there
is
no
connection
between the sense that is finally developed and
the primary meaning.
Generally
radiation
precedes
concatenation.
In
many
cases,
the
two
processes
work
together, complementing each other.
?
Polysemy
and
context
：
Polysemy
dose
34
not
create
much
confusion
in
daily
use
because
the
context
generally
reveals
which
meaning
out
of
all
its
possible
meanings
is
to
be
attached
to
the
word,
for example:
(1)
He
tipped
the
chessboard
撞
倒
棋
盘
,
dumping the men to the floor.
棋子
(2)
The visitor sent his man for the luggage.
男仆
(3)
Man the language lab.
给…配备人员
2
．
Homonymy
：
同形同音异义
Homonyms are
words
which
have
the
same
phonological
or
spelling form but differ in meaning.
Types
of
Homonymy:
Perfect
Homonyms
homographs, homophones (which constitute the
largest number and most common)
?
perfect homonyms
Words
identical
in
sound
and
spelling
but
different in meaning, e. g:
bark n / v To utter the harsh, abrupt sound
of a dog.
树皮
,
吠声
date n . a kind of fruit/ a boy or girl friend
?
Homograph
同形异义词
words
that
have
the
same spelling but differ in origin, meaning, and
sound.
Bow/bau/ n. bending the head as a greeting
Bow/bou/ device used for shooting arrows
35
Sow/sou/ v. to scatter seeds
sow [sau]
大母猪
?
homophone
同音异义词：
words
are
identical
only
in
sound
but
different
in
spelling
and
meaning:
Dear n. a love person
Deer n. a kind of animal
Right a. correct
Write v. put down on paper with a pen
Rite n. a ceremonial procedure
Origins
of
homonyms:
change
in
sound
and
spelling, borrowing,
Criteria
to
distinguish
homonyms
and
polysemants:
the
fundamental
difference lies
in
the fact that the former refers to different words
which
happen
to
share
the
same
form
and
the
latter
is
the
one
same
word
which
has
several
distinguishable
meanings.
One
important
criterion
is
to
see
their
etymology.
The
second
one
is
semantic
relatedness.
Meanings
of
different homonyms have nothing to do with one
another.
3
．
Synonymy
Synonyms are words different in sound and
spelling but nearly alike or exactly the same
in meaning.
synonymous patterns
36
1
）
The double scale patterns
In
English,
there
are
countless
pairs
of
synonyms in which a native term coexists with
the one borrowed from French, Latin or Greek.
2
）
the triple scale pattern
3
）
BrE. and AmE. Pattern In this pattern, the
British words and American words co-exist.
In this pattern, native, French, and Latin or
Greek words co- exist.
Types of Synonyms: relative ones and absolute ones
Absolute synonyms are words whose meaning is fully
identical
in
any
context
so
that
one
can
always
be
substituted for the other without the slightest change
in meaning. This kind of synonyms are rare and may
be
found
in
special
terminology
such
as
compounding
and
composition
in
lexicology,
malnutrition and undernourishment in medicine.
Relative synonyms
Synonyms
which
denote
different
shades
of
meaning
or
different
degrees
of
a
given
quality
are
called relative synonyms.
Take change/alter/vary for changea thing
is to put another thing in its place; to alter a thing is
to make it different from which it was before;to vary
a
thing
is
to
alter
it
in
different
manner
and
at
different times,e.g. ‘A man changes his habits, alters
his conduct, and varies his manner of speaking.’
37
Sources
of
synonyms:
borrowing,
dialects
and
regional English, figurative and euphemistic
Discrimination of synonyms: Synonyms may differ in
the
range
and
intensity
of
meaning.
Some
words
have a wider range of meaning than others.
1)difference
in
denotation
For
example,
extend,
increase,
expand
share
a
general
sense
but
have
different
implications..
Each
of
the
three
terms
expresses a different kind of enlargement
This can be illustrated by the following graphs
[1] The company has decided to increase its sales
by ten per cent next year.
[2]The
owner
of
the
restaurant
is
going
to
extend the kitchen by ten feet this year.
[3]The mental will expand if heated.
[4]a rich man and a wealthy lady are both rich,
but
the
wealthy
lady
is
felt
to
possess
more
money and property than a rich man
2)Difference
in
connotation,
By
connotation
we
mean
the
stylistics
and
emotive
colouring
of
38
words.
Some
words
share
the
same
denotation
but differ in their stylistic appropriateness.
a.
Borrowed
words
are
generally
more
formal
than
native
words:
answer/respond,
homely/domestic.
The
group
of
policemen,
constable, bobby, cop serves as another example.
Policeman and constable are stylistically neutral,
yet
the
former
is
used
in
British
English
an
American English while the latter is only British
Bobby is colloquial, used only in British English
and cop is slangy
b)archaic , poetic and standard
Ire/anger,
bliss/happiness
The
second
is
standard
in
usage
whereas
the
first
is
old-fashioned and archaic, only found in poetry,
earlier writings.
3)
Clear
affective
values
e.g.
Result
is
neutral
while
consequence
always
has
a
negative
implication. Compare the italicized words:
[1] Look at that lovely
little
boy.
[2 ] Look at that
small
boy.
[3] Look at that
tiny
boy.
The three adjectives all describe the smallness of
the
boy.
But
little
suggests
‘
attractiveness
and
‘
pleasantness
’
,
tiny
implies
the
abnormal
growth of the child and small simply conveys the
idea
of
being
not
big.
Therefore,little
is
appreciative,
small
is
neutral
and
tiny
is
derogatory.
39
4)difference
in
application
Many
words
are
synonymous in meaning but different in usage in
simple
terms.
They
form
different
collocations
We can say
‘
The word has two senses/meanings
’
He is a man of sense
’
is acceptable, but
‘
He is a
man
of
meaning
’
is
not
acceptable,
Empty
vacant
are
synonyms
but
their
collocations
are
not
the
same.
Empty(box,
street,
room,
vacant
(seat, chair, apartment Empty implies that there
is no one or nothing inside while vacant suggests
that something or some place is not occupied.
4
．
Antonym
：
opposite
in
meaning
are
generally called antonyms.
Types of antonyms:
1
）
Contradictory
terms
互相矛盾反义词
These
antonyms
truly
represent
oppositeness
of
meaning.
They
are
in
such
a
relationship
that
the
assertion
of
one
of
the
items
implies
the
denial
of
the
other,
e.g.,
alive
and
dead,
single
and
married.
Contradictory
terms
are
nongradabe
and
thus
one
cannot
say
“He
is
very alive/dead.”
2.
）
Contrary terms
相对的
Contraries display a type of semantic contrast,
illustrated by such pairs as rich and poor; good
and bad. They are gradable adjectives, i.e. they
can
be
modified
by
adverbs
which
convey
the
degree
of
the
intensity
of
the
adjective,
for
40
example: very/so/extremely rich/poor
A
middle ground
belong to
neither to one pole
nor
to
the
other
as
beautiful,
good-looking,
plain, ugly
3
）
Relative terms
This
third
type
consists
of
relational
opposites
such
as
parent
and
child,
lend
and
borrow,
husband
and
wife
,employer
and
employee
Relative
terms
are
different
from
contradictory
terms.
There
is
an
absolute
opposition between contradictory terms. IF the
adult
is
not
a
man,
then
the
adult
must
be
a
woman.
Characteristics of antonyms
1
）
They are classified on the basis of semantic
opposition.
Words
denoting
nature,
quality
or
state
of
things
have
many
antonyms.
Many
words,
though
having
synonyms,
do
not
find
their semantic opposites, hit, book, house.
2
）
A
word
may
have
more
than
one
antonym.
Different
antonyms
in
different
contexts.
For
instance,
when
the
word
“fast”
is
used
in
the
sense of “fixed firmly”, then the antonym will be
“loose”
or
“insecure”.
But
when
it
means
“rapid”, its antonym will be “slow”.
3
）
. Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
反义
词在语义的包容上不同
41
In
many
pairs
we
can
find
that
one
member
is
more specific than the other and the meaning of
the specific is included in that of the general. e.g.
man/woman, tall/short, old/young
There
has
been
no
man
in
the
island.
Man
signifies
‘human
being’
naturally
inc
luding
woman
How tall is his brother?
How short is his brother?
4.
）
Contrary
terms
are
gradable
antonyms,
differing in degree of intensity.
For example,
hot
and
warm
are synonyms. Their
difference lies in intensity. The opposite of
hot
is
cold
and that of
warm
is
cool
.
5.
Hyponymy
Superordinate and subordinate terms
meat
beef
mutton
food
vegetable
celery
spinach
fruit
peach
42
From
the
above
diagram,
we
can
see
the
word
food
is
a
general
term,
linguistically
called
a
superordinate term, i.e., it includes all the other
terms listed underneath it. Meat, vegetable, and
fruit
are
specific
terms
and
they
are
all
hyponyms/subordinate
terms
of
food.
The
relationship between specific words and general
words are called hyponymy.
Lecture 8
Meaning and Context
1.
Types of Context
1.1Extra-linguistic
context/
Context
of
situation(
语
言之外的环境
)
The extra-linguistic context may extend to embrace
the
entire
cultural
background.,
which
may
also
affect the meaning of words.
1.
The
actual
speech
situation
in
which
a
word
occurs
There are cases in which the meaning of a word is
determined
not
by
linguistic
factors,
but
by
the
speech
situation
in
which
a
word
is
used.
e.g.
“
Father’s coming
”.
In
everyday
life,
word
meaning
is
more
often
dependent on the actual situation in which a word
is used rather than on verbal context.
2.
The
entire
cultural
background
against
which
a
word is used
The extra-linguistic context may lead on to an even
43
broader
view
of
context
embracing
the
entire
cultural
background
against
which
a
word,
or
an
utterance, or a speech event has been set. Because
of
the
cultural
differences,
the
same
lexical
item
may not mean the same thing to people of different
countries e.g.
“ dragon” in Chinese and English
“ landlord” in Chinese and English
“ liberalism” in Chinese and English
自由主义：一
种政 治理论，
它以人性本善为基础，
提倡个人自治，
强调公民和政治的自由，
主张 用被统治者所同意的
方法进行统治，
提倡保护个人使其免受专断权威的
迫害
stic context
2.1 Lexical context(
词汇语境
):
This context refers to the words that occur together
with the word in question.
The
meaning
of
the
word
is
often
affected
and
defined
by
the
neighboring.
e.g.
make
,
it
also
means the following meanings:
My father
made
5000 yuan a month. ( earned)
The train was
making
140 kilometers an hour then.
( moving at a speed)
She
made
coffee for us. ( boiled)
The
rules
and
regulations
are
made
to
protect
everybody’s ri
ght. ( enacted)
Paper
has
a
number
of
meanings
in
the
dictionary,
yet
in
each
of
the
following
context,
it
conveys
only
one sense.
44
(1)A sheet of paper (thin flat sheets of substance for
writing, printing, decorating walls, etc. )
(2) A white paper (government document)
(3)
A
term
paper
(essay
written
at
the
end
of
the
term)
(4) today’s paper (newspaper)
(5)
Examination
paper
(a
set
of
questions
used
as
examination)
tical context:
The
meanings
of
a
word
in
this
context
may
be
influenced
by
the
structure
in
which
it
occurs.
Though less common, it is by no means rare.
In
grammatical
context,
the
syntactic
structure
of
the context determines various individual meanings
of a polysemous word. Take the verb
get
for example;
its meaning varies in different syntactical structure:
?
get +
n. means “ to receive” , as in “ I got a gift
from Mary”.
?
get
+
adj.
means
“
to
become”,
as
in
“
Tom
is
getting taller and taller”.
?
get
+
n. + adj. means “ to bring something to a
certain condition; cause to be or become”
, as in
“ She soon got herself ready for the party”.
?
get
+ infinitive means “ to succeed in doing “, as
in “ If I get to graduate this summer, I will take
the job as an accountant in that company”.
?
get
+ n. + infinitive means “ to cause somebody
to
do
some
thing”,
as
in
“
I
will
get
the
gardener to water my plants when I am out”.
45
?
Role of Context
?
2.1 Eliminating ambiguities
Ambiguity refers to a word, phrase, sentence or
group
of
sentences
with
more
than
one
possible
interpretation
or
meaning.
Lexical
ambiguity
often
arises due to polysemy
a) He is a
hard
businessman
b)
John
ran
the
egg
and
spoon
race.
“hardworking” “difficult”
“participated” “organized”
1.
Role of Context
1.1
Elimination of ambiguity
Ambiguity
often
arises
due
to
polysemy
and
homonymy. When a word with a multiple meanings
is used in inadequate context, it creates ambiguity.
Homonymy
is
another
cause
of
ambiguity
as
two
separate words share the same form.
Grammatical structure can also lead to ambiguity.
Ambiguity
refers
to
a
word,
phrase,
sentence
or
group
of
sentences
with
more
than
one
possible
interpretation
or
meaning.
Lexical
ambiguity
often
arises due to polysemy
a) He is a
hard
businessman
b)
John
ran
the
egg
and
spoon
race.
“hardworking” “difficult”
“participated” “organized”
?
Structural
ambiguity
arises
from
the
grammatical analysis of a sentence or a phrase.
?
e.g.
young
men and women ( both the men and
46
women are young; or young men and all women)
?
I like my students more than Bill. ( This sentence
can be under
stood as “ I like my students more
than
Bill
does.”
or
“
I
like
my
students
more
than I like Bill.”)
1.2
Indication of referents
限定所指
Without
clear
context,
the
reference
can
be
very
confusing.
In
conversation,
in
order
to
avoid
repetition,
pronouns(
like
I,
he,
you,
this,
or
that
)
are
often
used instead of a noun or a noun phrase;
do, can,
might,
or
should
can
be
used
in
place
of
a
verb
phrase,
and
then,
or
there
is
used
in
place
of
an
adverbial
phrase
of
time
or
place.
Context
is
of
great importance in understanding the referents of
such word.
?
e.g.
“ –
Do you think he will?
?
--
I don’t know. He might.
?
-- I suppose he ought to, but perhaps he feels he
can’t.
?
-- Well, his brothers have. They perhaps think
he needn’t.
?
--
Perhaps eventually he may. I think he should,
and I very much hope he will.”
3.3
Provision
of
clues
for
inferring
word
meaning.
提供线索推断词义
In many cases, when a new word appears for the
first time, the author generally manages to give hints
47
that
might
help
the
readers
to
grasp the
concept
or
understand the idea. Context clues vary a great deal
but can be summed up as follows:
A.
Definition
The
author
gives
formal
definition
immediately after a new term.
s the most startling theory to come out
of
kinestics
,
the
study
of
body
movement,was
suggested by Professor Birdwhistell.
B. explanation
If
the
concept
is
complicated
and
must
involved
technical
terms
in
the
definition,
the
author
might
explain the idea in simple words.
E.g. It
’
s just one
more
incredible
result
of
the
development
of
microprocessors
-
those
tiny
parts
of
computer
commonly known as
‘
silicon chips.
C.
Example
cite an example to throw light on the
meaning of the term.
E.g. Many United Nations employees are polyglots.
Ms. Mary, for example, speaks five languages
D. Synonymy
Their greatest fear was of a conflagration
大火
, since
fire
would
destroy
their
flimsy
wooden
settlement
before help could arrive.
E. Antonymy
As
the
fighting
on
all
fronts
reached
its
peak,
the
economy neared its nadir.
F. Hyponymy e.g. The village had most of the useful
amenities:
a
pub,
a
library,
a
post
office,
a
village
hall, a medical center, and a school.
G. Relevant details
48
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