关键词不能为空

当前您在: 主页 > 英语 >

猛新东方背诵80篇(整理中英对照版)

作者:高考题库网
来源:https://www.bjmy2z.cn/gaokao
2021-01-24 02:52
tags:

-

2021年1月24日发(作者:怀)

新东方背诵
80


01 The Language of Music
音乐的语言

画家将已完成的作品挂在墙上,
每个人都
A painter hangs his or her finished picture on a wall, and
everyone can see it. A composer writes a work, but no one
可以观赏到。
作曲家写完了一部作品,
得由演
can
hear
it
until
it
is
performed.
Professional
singers
and
奏者将其演奏出来,
其他人才能得以欣赏。

players
have
great
responsibilities,
for
the
composer
is
为作曲家是如此完全地依赖于职业歌手和职
utterly dependent on them. A student of music needs as long
业演奏者,
所以职业歌手和职业演奏者肩上的
and
as
arduous
a
training
to
become
a
performer
as
a
担子可谓不轻。
一名学音乐的学生要想成为一
medical student needs to become a doctor. Most training
is
名演奏者,需要经受长期的、严格的训练,就
concerned
with
technique,
for
musicians
have
to
have
the
象一名医科的学生要成为一名医生一样。
绝大
muscular proficiency of an athlete or a ballet dancer. Singers
多数的训练是技巧性的。
音乐家们控制肌肉的
practice breathing every day, as their vocal chords would be
熟练程度,
必须达到与运动员或巴蕾舞演员相
inadequate
without
controlled
muscular
support.
String
当的水平。
歌手们每天都练习吊嗓子,
因为如
players
practice moving
the
fingers
of
the
left
hand
up
and
果不能有效地控制肌肉的话,
他们的声带将不
down, while drawing the bow to and fro with the right arm --
能满足演唱的要求。
弦乐器的演奏者练习的则
two
entirely
different
movements.
Singers
and
是在左手的手指上下滑动的同时,
用右手前后
instrumentalists have to be able to get every note perfectly in
拉动琴弓
--
两个截然不同的动作。歌手和乐器
tune. Pianists are spared this particular anxiety, for the notes
演奏者必须使所有的音符完全相同协调。
钢琴
are already there, waiting for them, and it is the piano tuner's
家们则不用操这份心,
因为每个音符都已在那
responsibility to tune the instrument for them. But they have
里等待着他们了。给钢琴调音是调音师的职
their own difficulties: the hammers that hit the strings have to
责。
但调音师们也有他们的难处:
他们必须耐
be
coaxed
not
to
sound
like
percussion,
and
each
心地调理敲击琴弦的音锤,
不能让音锤发出的
overlapping tone has to sound clear. This problem of getting
声音象是打击乐器,
而且每个交叠的音都必须
clear
texture
is
one
that
confronts student
conductors:
they
要清晰。
如何得到乐章清晰的纹理是学生指挥
have
to
learn
to
know
every
note
of
the
music
and
how
it
们所面临的难题:
他们必须学会了解音乐中的
should
sound,
and
they
have
to
aim
at
controlling
these
每一个音及其发音之道。
他们还必须致力于以
sounds
with
fanatical
but selfless
authority.
Technique
is
of
热忱而又客观的权威去控制这些音符。
除非是
no
use
unless
it
is
combined
with
musical
knowledge
and
和音乐方面的知识和悟性结合起来,
单纯的技
understanding. Great artists are those who are so thoroughly
巧没有任何用处。
艺术家之所以伟大在于他们
at
home
in
the
language
of
music
that
they
can
enjoy
对音乐语言驾轻就熟,
以致于可以满怀喜悦地
performing works written in any century.
02 Schooling and Education
上学与受教育

It is commonly believed in
the United States that school is
在美国,人们通常认为上学是为了受
where people go to get an education. Nevertheless, it has been
教育。

而现在却有人认为孩子们上学打断
said that today children interrupt their education to go to school.
了他们

受教育的过程。

这种观念中的上
The distinction between schooling and education implied by this
学与受教育之间的区别非常重要。

与上学
remark
is
important.
Education
is
much more
open-ended
and
相比,
教育更具

开放性,
内容更广泛。


演出写于任何时代的作品。

1

all- inclusive than schooling. Education knows no bounds.
It can
育不受任何限制。

它可以在任何场合下进
take place anywhere, hether in the shower or in the job, whether
行,
在淋浴时,
在工作

时,
在厨房里或拖
in a kitchen
or on a tractor.
It includes both the formal
learning
拉机上。

它既包括在学校所受的正规教
that
takes
place
in
schools
and
the
whole
universe
of
informal
育,也包括一切非正规教育。



授知识
learning.
The
agents
of
education
can
range
from
a
revered
的人可以是德高望重的老者,可以是收音
grandparent to
the people debating
politics on the radio, from a
机里进行政治辩论的人们,
可以是小孩子,

child
to
a
distinguished
scientist.
Whereas
schooling
has
a
也可以是知名的科学家。

上学读书多少有
certain predictability, education quite often produces surprises. A
点可预见性,而教育往往能带来意外的发
chance
conversation
with
a
stranger
may
lead
a
person
to
现。



陌生人的一次随意谈话可能会使
discover
how
little
is
known
of
other
religions.
People
are
人认识到自己对其它宗教其实所知甚少。

engaged in education from infancy on. Education, then, is a very
人们从幼时起就

开始受教育。

因此,教
broad,
inclusive
term.
It
is
a
lifelong
process,
a
process
that
育是一个内涵很丰富的词,它自始至终伴
starts long before the start of school, and one that should be an
随人的一生,早在人们上

学之前就开始
integral part of one's entire life. Schooling, on the other hand, is a
了。

教育应成为人生命中不可缺少的一部
specific,
formalized
process,
whose
general
pattern
varies
little
分。
然而,
上学却是一个特定的形

式化了
from
one
setting
to
the
next.
Throughout
a
country,
children
的过程。

在不同场合下,
它的基本形式大
arrive at school at
approximately the same time, take assigned
同小异。

在全国各地,
孩子们几乎在同一

seats,
are
taught
by
an
adult,
use
similar
textbooks,
do
时刻到达学校,坐在指定的座位上,由一
homework, take exams, and so on. The slices of reality that are
位成年人传授知识,
使用大致相同的教材,
to
be
learned,
whether
they
are
the
alphabet
or
an
做作业,

考试等等。

他们所学的现实生
understanding of the workings of government, have usually been
活中的一些片断,
如字母表或政府的运作,
limited
by
the
boundaries
of
the
subject
being
taught.
For
往往受到科目范

围的限制。

例如,高中
example,
high
school
students
know
that
they
are
not
likely
to
生们知道,在课堂上他们没法弄清楚他们
find out in their classes the truth about political problems in their
社区里政治问题的真情,

也不会了解到最
communities
or
what
the
newest
filmmakers
are
experimenting
新潮的电影制片人在做哪些尝试。

学校教
with.
There
are
definite
conditions
surrounding
the
formalized
育这一形式化的过程是有特定的

限制的。

process of schooling.
03 The Definition of

价格

的定义

价格决定资源的使用方式。价格
Prices determine how resources are to be used. They are also
the means by which products and services that are in limited supply
也是有限的产品与服务在买方中的配
are rationed among buyers. The price system of the United States is
给手段。美国的价格系统是复杂的网
a complex network composed of the prices of all the products bought
状系统,包括经济生活中一切产品买
and
sold
in
the
economy
as
well
as
those
of
a myriad
of
services,
卖的价格,也包括名目繁多的各种服
including
labor,
professional,
transportation,
and
public-utility
务,诸如劳动力、专职人员、交通运
services.
The
interrelationships
of
all
these
prices
make
up
the
输、公共事业等服务的价格。所有这

any particular product or service is
些价格的内在联系构成了价格系统。
linked to a broad, complicated system of prices in which everything
任何一种个别产品或服务的价格都与
seems to depend more or less upon everything else. If one were to
这个庞大而复杂的系统密切相关,而
ask a group of randomly selected individuals to define
且或多或少地受到系统中其它成份的
2

would reply that price is an amount of money paid by the buyer to the
制约。如果随机挑选一群人,问问他
seller
of
a
product
or
service
or,
in
other
words,
that
price
is
the
们如何定义

价格


许多人会回答价格
money
value
of
a
product
or
service
as
agreed
upon
in
a
market
就是根据卖方提供的产品或服务,买
transaction. This definition is, of course, valid as far as it goes. For a
方向其付出的钱数。换句话说,价格
complete
understanding
of
a
price
in
any
particular
transaction,
就是市场交易中大家认同的产品或服
much more than the amount of money involved must be known. Both
务的货币量。该定义就其本身来说自
the buyer and the seller should be familiar with not only the money
有其道理。但要获得对价格在任何一
amount, but with the amount and quality of the product or service to
桩交易中的完整认识,就必须考虑到
be
exchanged,
the
time
and
place
at
which
the
exchange
will
take
大量

非货币

因素的影响。
买卖双方不
place and payment will be made, the form of money to be used, the
但要清楚交易中的钱数,而且要非常
credit terms and discounts that apply to the transaction, guarantees
熟悉交易物的质量和数量,交易的时
on the product or service, delivery terms, return privileges, and other
间、地点,采用哪种形式付款,有怎
factors. In other words, both buyer and seller should be fully aware of
样的缓付和优惠,对交易物的质量保
all the factors that comprise the total
证、交货条款、退赔权利等等。也就
the
asked-for
amount
of
money
in
order
that
they
may
evaluate
a
是说,为了能估算索价,买卖双方必
given price.
04 Electricity


The modern age is an age of electricity. People are so used to
当今时代是电气时代。
人们对电灯、
electric
lights,
radio,
televisions,
and
telephones
that
it
is
hard
to
收音机、电视和电话早已司空见惯以致
imagine
what
life
would
be
like
without
them.
When
there
is
a
很难想象没有它们生活会变成什么样。
power
failure,
people
grope
about
in
flickering
candlelight,
cars
当停电时,人们在摇曳不定的烛光下暗
hesitate in the streets because there are no traffic lights to guide
中摸索;因没有红绿灯的指示,汽车在
them, and food spoils in silent refrigerators. Yet, people began to
道路上迟疑不前;冰箱也停止工作,导
understand
how
electricity
works
only
a
little
more
than
two
致食物变质。人们只是在两个世纪前一
centuries
ago.
Nature
has
apparently
been
experimenting
in
this
点才开始了解电的使用原理,自然界却
field for millions of years. Scientists are discovering more and more
显然在这方面经历过了数百万年。科学
that the living world may hold many interesting secrets of electricity
家不断发现许多生物世界里可能有益于
that could benefit humanity. All
living cells send out tiny pulses of
人类的关于电的有趣秘密。所有生物细
electricity.
As
the
heart
beats,
it sends
out
pulses
of
record;
they
胞都会发出微小的电脉冲。当心脏跳动
form an electrocardiogram, which a doctor can study to determine
时,把它发出的脉冲记录下来就成了心
how
well
the
heart
is
working.
The
brain,
too,
sends
out
brain
电图,
这可让医生了解心脏的工作状况。
waves
of
electricity,
which
can
be
recorded
in
an
大脑也发出脑电波,这可在脑电图上记
electroencephalogram.
The
electric
currents
generated
by
most
录下来。许多生物细胞发出的电流都是
living
cells
are
extremely
small
--
often
so
small
that
sensitive
极微小的,小到要用灵敏仪器才能记录
instruments
are
needed
to
record
them.
But
in
some
animals,
和测量。但一些动物的某些肌肉细胞能
certain
muscle
cells
have
become
so
specialized
as
electrical
转化成一个个发电机,以致完全失去肌
generators that they do not work as muscle cells at all. When large
肉细胞的功能。这种细胞大量地连接在
numbers
of
these
cells
are
linked
together,
the
effects
can
be
一起时产生的效果将是非常令人吃惊
astonishing. The electric eel is an amazing storage battery.
It can
的。电鳗就是一种令人惊异的蓄电池。
须通晓构成交易物价格的通盘细节。

3

send a jolt of as much as eight hundred volts of electricity through
它可以在水中发出相当于
800
伏特电压
the
water
in
which
it
lives.
(An
electric
house current
is
only
one
电流
(
家庭用户的电压只有
120
伏特
)

hundred twenty volts. ) As many as four- fifths of all the cells in the
在电鳗的身体里,多至五分之四的细胞
electric eel's body are specialized for generating electricity, and the
都专门用来发电,而且发出的电流的强
strength
of
the
shock
it
can
deliver
corresponds
roughly
to
the
度大约和它身体的长度成正比。

length of its body.
05 The Beginning of Drama
戏剧的起源

There are many theories about the beginning of drama in
关于古希腊戏剧的起源存在着多种理
ancient Greece. The one most widely accepted today is based
论,
其中一个最普遍为人接受的理论假设认
on
the
assumption
that
drama
evolved
from
ritual.
The
为戏剧从仪式演化而来。
这个观点是这样进
argument
for
this
view
goes
as
follows.
In
the
beginning,
行论证的:
一开始,
人类把世界上的自然力
human beings viewed the natural forces of the world - even the
量,甚至季节的变化都看成是不可预料的。
seasonal changes - as unpredictable, and they sought through
他们试图通过各种方式去控制这些未知的、
various
means
to
control
these
unknown
and
feared
powers.
令人恐惧的力量。
那些似乎带来了满意结果
Those
measures
which
appeared
to
bring
the
desired
results
的手段就被保留下来并且重复直到这些手
were then retained and repeated until they hardened into fixed
段固化为不变的仪式,
最后产生了能够解释
rituals.
Eventually
stories
arose
which
explained
or
veiled
the
或者掩盖这些仪式神秘性的故事。
随着时间
mysteries
of
the
rites.
As
time
passed
some
rituals
were
的推移,
一些仪式被废弃了,
但这些后来被
abandoned,
but
the
stories,
later
called
myths,
persisted
and
称作神话的故事流传下来并且为艺术和戏
provided
material
for
art
and
drama.
Those
who
believe
that
剧提供了素材。
认为戏剧从仪式演化而来的
drama
evolved
out
of
ritual
also
argue
that
those
rites
人们还认为那些仪式包含了戏剧的基本因
contained
the
seed
of
theater
because
music,
dance, masks,
素,因为音乐、舞蹈、面具和服装几乎经常
and
costumes
were
almost
always
used.
Furthermore,
a
被使用,
而且,
必须为演出提供一个合适的
suitable site had to be provided for performances and when the
地点;
如果不是整个社区共同参加演出,

entire
community
did
not
participate,
a
clear
division
was
常在

演出区



观众席

之间划分出明显的
usuall y made between the
分界。另外,
仪式中还有演员,而且宗教领
In
addition,
there
were
performers,
and,
since
considerable
袖通常承担演出任务,
因为在仪式的执行中
importance
was
attached
to
avoiding
mistakes
in
the
避免错误的发生被认为有相当大的重要性;
enactment of rites, religious leaders usually assumed that task.
他们经常带着面具,
穿着服装象演员那样扮
Wearing masks and costumes, they often impersonated other
演其它人、
动物或超自然的生灵,
用动作来
people,
animals,
or
supernatural
beings,
and
mimed
the
表演以达到所需要的效果,
比如打猎的成功
desired effect -- success in hunt or battle, the coming rain, the
或战斗的胜利、
将至的雨、
太阳的复活。

revival
of
the
Sun
--
as
an
actor
might.
Eventually
such
后这些戏剧性的表演从宗教活动中分离了
dramatic
representations
were
separated
from
religious
出来。
另一个追溯戏剧起源的理论认为它来
activities.
Another
theory
traces
the
theater's
origin
from
the
自人们对叙述故事的兴趣。根据这个观点,
human
interest
in
storytelling.
According
to
this
view
tales
故事
(
关于狩猎、战争或者其它伟绩
)
是逐渐
(about the hunt, war, or
other feats) are gradually elaborated,
丰富起来的。
首先通过一个讲解人来运用模
at first through the use of impersonation, action, and dialogue
仿、
表演和对话,
然后再由不同的人扮演各
by a narrator and then through the assumption of each of the
自的角色;
另一个与之紧密相关的理论将戏
4

roles
by
a
different
person.
A
closely
related
theory
traces
剧的起源追溯至舞蹈,
这些舞蹈大体上是有
theater
to
those
dances
that
are
primarily
rhythmical
and
节奏感的和体操式的那一类,
或者是对动物
gymnastic
or
that
are
imitations
of
animal
movements
and
动作和声音的模仿。

sounds.
06 Television
电视

电视
-
以快速变化与发展为标志的最
Television -- the most pervasive and persuasive of modern
technologies, marked by rapid change and growth -- is moving
普遍、最具有影响力的一项现代技术,正
into
a
new
era,
an
era
of
extraordinary
sophistication
and
在步入一个极端复杂化与多样化的新时
versatility, which promises to reshape our lives and our world. It
代。这个时代承诺重新塑造我们的生活和
is
an
electronic
revolution
of
sorts,
made
possible
by
the
我们的世界。这可以称得上是又一次电子
marriage
of
television
and
computer
technologies.
The
word
革命,其关键在于电视技术与计算机技术

derived
from
its
Greek
(tele:
distant)
and
Latin
的结合。

电视

这个词来源于希腊语词根
(visio:
sight)
roots,
can
literally
be
interpreted
as
sight
from
a (tele
:远
)
和拉丁语词根
(vision
:景象
)
,可
distance.
Very
simply
put,
it
works
in
this
way:
through
a
以从字面上理解为来自远处的景象。简单
sophisticated
system
of
electronics,
television
provides
the
说来,电视是以这种方式工作的,通过一
capability
of
converting
an
image
(focused
on
a
special
个复杂的电子系统,电视能够将一幅图像
photoconductive plate within a camera) into electronic impulses,
(
这幅图像被聚焦在一部摄像机内的一块
which
can
be
sent
through
a
wire
or
cable.
These
impulses,
特殊的光导底片上
)
转换成能经过导线或
when
fed
into
a
receiver
(television
set),
can
then
be
电缆发送出去的电子脉冲信号。当这些电
electronically
reconstituted
into
that
same
image.
Television
is
子脉冲信号被输入一部接收机
(
电视机
)
时,
more than just an
electronic system, however. It is a means of
就可以用电子学的方法把脉冲信号重新恢
expression, as well as a vehicle for communication, and as such
复成同一幅图像。但是,电视不仅仅是一
becomes a powerful tool for reaching other human beings. The
个电子系统,它还是一种表达工具和传播
field of television can be divided into two categories determined
渠道。因此,电视成了一个对其他人发生
by its means of transmission. First, there is broadcast television,
影响的强大工具。电视这个领域可以根据
which
reaches
the
masses
through
broad-based
airwave
其发射方式分为两类。
第一类为广播电视,
transmission
of
television
signals.
Second,
there
is
通过电视信号的宽带无线电波发射展现在
nonbroadcast
television,
which
provides
for
the
needs
of
大众面前;第二类为非广播电视,使用受
individuals
or
specific
interest
groups
through
controlled
控的发射技术来满足个人以及某些特殊利
transmission
techniques.
Traditionally,
television
has
been
a
益群体的需要。电视早已成为大众媒介。
medium
of
the
masses.
We
are
most
familiar
with
broadcast
我们熟悉广播电视,因为广播电视已经以
television
because
it
has
been
with
us
for
about
thirty-seven
类似目前的方式存在了大约
37
年。
在那些
years in a form similar to what exists today. During those years,
年头中,
电视绝大部分一直由
ABC

NBC

it
has
been
controlled,
for
the
most
part,
by
the
broadcast
CBS
这些广播电视公司控制着,这些广播
networks,
ABC,
NBC,
and
CBS,
who
have
been
the
major
电视公司一直是新闻、信息和娱乐的主要
purveyors of news, information, and entertainment. These giants
提供者。这些广播业的巨头实际上不仅塑
of broadcasting have actually shaped not only television but our
造了电视,而且也塑造了我们对电视的理
perception of it as well. We have come to look upon the picture
解。
我们渐渐把显像管看作是娱乐的来源,
tube
as
a
source
of
entertainment,
placing
our
role
in
this
让自己成为这个生动的媒介的被动观众。

5

dynamic medium as the passive viewer.
07 Andrew Carnegie
安德鲁·卡内基

Andrew
Carnegie,
known
as
the
King
of
Steel,
built
the
被称作钢铁大王的安德鲁·卡内基在美
steel industry in the United States, and, in the process, became
国建立了钢铁工业。在这个过程中,他变
one
of
the
wealthiest
men
in
America.
His success
resulted
in
成了美国最富有的人之一。他的成功,部
part from his ability to sell the product and in part from his policy
分来自于他销售产品的能力,部分来自于
of expanding during periods of economic decline, when most of
经济萧条时期的扩充策略。在萧条时期,
his
competitors
were
reducing
their
investments.
Carnegie
他的多数对手都在缩减投资。卡内基认为
believed that individuals should progress through hard work, but
个人应该通过努力工作来获得进展,但他
he
also
felt
strongly
that
the
wealthy
should
use
their
fortunes
也强烈地感到有钱人应该运用他们的财富
for the benefit of society. He opposed charity, preferring instead
来为社会谋取福利。他反对施舍救济,更
to
provide
educational
opportunities
that
would
allow
others
to
愿意提供教育机会,使别人自立。卡内基
help themselves.
经常说:

富有着死去的人死得可耻。

他对
said.
Among
his
more
noteworthy
contributions
to
society
are
社会的较重要的贡献都以他的名字命名。
those
that
bear
his
name,
including
the
Carnegie
Institute
of
这些贡献包括匹兹堡卡内基学校。这个学
Pittsburgh,
which
has
a
library,
a
museum
of
fine
arts,
and
a
校有一个图书馆,一个美术馆和一个国家
museum
of
national
history.
He
also
founded
a
school
of
历史博物馆;他还创立了一所技术学校,
technology that is now part of Carnegie-Mellon University. Other
这所学校现在是卡内基梅隆大学的一部
philanthropic gifts are the Carnegie Endowment for International
分;其他的慈善捐赠有为促进国家间了解
Peace to promote understanding between nations, the Carnegie
的< br>
卡内基国际和平基金


为科学研究提供
Institute of Washington to fund scientific research, and Carnegie
经费的华盛顿卡内基学院以及给各种艺术
Hall to provide a center for the arts. Few Americans have been
活动提供活动中心的卡内基音乐厅。安德
left
untouched
by
Andrew
Carnegie's
generosity.
His
鲁·卡内基的慷慨大度几乎影响到每个美国
contributions of more than five million dollars established 2,500
人的生活。
由于他超过五百万美元的捐款,
libraries
in
small
communities
throughout
the
country
and
2500
个图书馆得以建立起来,遍布在美国
formed the nucleus of the public library system that we all enjoy
各地的小村镇,形成了我们今天还在享用
today.
08 American Revolution
美国革命

The
American
Revolution
was
not
a
revolution
in
the
美国革命其实并不算是一场革命,因为
sense
of
a
radical
or
total
change.
It
was
not
a
sudden
and
它并未导致完全的和彻底的变化。这次革命
violent overturning of the political and social framework, such
并不是对政治和社会框架的一次突然和猛烈
as
later
occurred
in
France
and
Russia,
when
both
were
的颠覆,象后来在已经是独立国家的法国和
already
independent
nations.
Significant
changes
were
俄国所爆发的革命那样。革命带来了重大的
ushered
in,
but
they
were
not
breathtaking.
What
happened
变化,但并非翻天覆地,所发生的只是进化
was
accelerated
evolution
rather
than
outright
revolution.
的加速,而不是一场彻底的革命;在冲突期
During the conflict itself people went on working and praying,
间,人们仍然上班、做礼拜、结婚、玩耍。
marrying
and
playing.
Most
of
them
were
not
seriously
多数人并没有受到实际战斗的严重影响。许
disturbed
by
the
actual
fighting,
and
many
of
the
more
多较闭塞的社区对这场战争几乎一无所知。
isolated
communities
scarcely
knew
that
a
war
was
on.
美国独立战争宣布了三个现代国家的诞生,
6
的公共图书馆系统的核心。


America's
War
of
Independence
heralded
the
birth
of
three
其中一个是加拿大。加拿大的第一大批讲英
modern
nations.
One
was
Canada,
which
received
its
first
语的流入人口来自于成千上万英王的效忠
large
influx
of
English-speaking
population
from
the
者,这些人从美国逃到了加拿大。另一个国
thousands of loyalists who fled there from the United States.
家是澳大利亚,因为美国不再是容纳罪犯和
Another was Australia, which became a penal colony now that
欠债者的国度了,澳大利亚就变成了一个惩
America
was
no
longer
available
for
prisoners
and
debtors.
治罪犯的殖民地
(
注:独立战争前,英国政府
The
third
newcomer
--
the
United
States
--
based
itself
将罪犯流放到美国
)
。第三个国家就是美国,
squarely
on
republican
principles.
Yet
even
the
political
它完全建立在共和原则基础上。即使政治上
overturn
was
not so
revolutionary
as
one
might
suppose.
In
的颠覆也不如人们可能想象的那样具有革命
some states, notably Connecticut and Rhode Island, the war
性。在一些州,特别是康涅狄格和罗德岛,
largely
ratified
a
colonial
self-rule
already
existing.
British
战争基本上只是承认了已经存在的殖民地的
officials, everywhere ousted, were replaced by a home-grown
自治。四处被驱逐的英国官员都被本土的统
governing class, which promptly sought a local substitute for
治阶级所替代,这个统治阶级迅速地以地方
king and Parliament.
09 Suburbanization
郊区的发展

If
by

is
meant
an
urban
margin
that
grows
more
如果

郊区

指的是比已建好的城市
rapidly
than
its
already
developed
interior,
the
process
of
内部发展更为迅速的城市边缘地带,那
suburbanization began during the emergence of the industrial city
么郊区化可以说始于
1825
年至
1850

in the second quarter of the nineteenth century. Before that period
工业化城市出现期间。在这之前,城市
the city was a small highly compact cluster in which people moved
只是高度密集的小聚居群。在其中,人
about
on
foot
and
goods
were
conveyed
by
horse
and
cart.
But
们步行走动,商品靠马车来运送。但是
the
early
factories
built
in
the
1830's
and
1840's
were
located
建于
18
世纪三四十年代的早期工厂位于
along
waterways
and
near
railheads
at
the
edges
of
cities,
and
城边的航道和铁路附近,被工作机会吸
housing
was
needed
for
the
thousands
of
people
drawn
by
the
引到这里的成千上万的人们需要住房。
prospect
of
employment.
In
time,
the
factories
were
surrounded
渐渐地,在与旧有的主要城区相毗邻的
by
proliferating
mill
towns
of
apartments
and
row
houses
that
地方,不断涌现出由排房和公寓楼组成
abutted
the
older,
main
cities.
As
a
defense
against
this
的工人聚居区,包围了工厂。作为对这
encroachment
and
to
enlarge
their
tax
bases,
the
cities
种侵蚀的自卫,也为了扩大它们收税的
appropriated their industrial neighbors.
In 1854, for example, the
地域范围,城市吞并了工业化的临近地
city of Philadelphia annexed most of Philadelphia County. Similar
带,
比如
1854
年费城的城区就兼并了费
municipal
maneuvers
took
place
in
Chicago
and
in
New
York.
县的绝大部分地区。相似的城市化也发
Indeed,
most
great
cities
of
the
United
States
achieved
such
生在芝加哥和纽约。今天很多美国的大
status only by incorporating the communities along their borders.
城市其实就是靠吞并它们附近的边缘地
With
the
acceleration
of
industrial
growth
came
acute
urban
区而变成大都会的。随着工业化的加速
crowding and accompanying social stress -- conditions that began
发展,城市里出现了严重拥挤和相伴而
to
approach
disastrous
proportions
when,
in
1888,
the
first
来的社会压力。

18 88
年第一条商业上
commercially
successful
electric
traction
line
was
developed.
成功的电气化铁轨被制造出来时,压力
Within
a
few
years
the
horse-drawn
trolleys
were
retired
and
开始接近危机的程度。几年之内,马车
electric
streetcar
networks
crisscrossed
and
connected
every
就被废弃了,电车网相互交织连接着各
权力机关来替代国王和议会。

7

major
urban
area,
fostering
a
wave
of
suburbanization
that
个重要的城区,从而形成了一种郊区化
transformed
the
compact
industrial
city
into
a
dispersed
的潮流,即密集的工业城市转变成了分
metropolis.
This
first
phase
of
mass-scale
suburbanization
was
散的都市。此时城市中产阶级的出现进
reinforced
by
the
simultaneous
emergence
of
the
urban
Middle
一步加强了第一波大规模郊区化。这些
Class,
whose
desires
for
homeownership
in
neighborhoods
far
中产阶级希望在远离老旧城市的地区拥
from
the
aging
inner
city
were
satisfied
by
the
developers
of
有住宅,单一家庭住宅地区的开发者满
single-family housing tracts.
10 Types of Speech
语言的类型

Standard
usage
includes
those
words
and
expressions
标准用法包括那些为使用这种语言
understood, used, and accepted by a majority of the speakers of a
的大多数人在任何场合下理解、
使用和接
language in any situation regardless of the
level of formality. As
受的词和短语,而不论该场合是否正式。
such, these words and expressions are well defined and listed in
这些词和短语的意义已很确定并被列入
standard
dictionaries.
Colloquialisms,
on
the
other
hand,
are
了标准词典中。
相反,
俗语是指那些几乎
familiar
words
and
idioms
that
are
understood
by
almost
all
所有讲这种语言的人都理解并在非正式
speakers
of
a
language
and
used
in
informal
speech
or
writing,
的口头或书面中使用,
却不适用于更正规
but not considered appropriate for more formal situations. Almost
的一些场合的词和短语。
几乎所有的习惯
all idiomatic expressions are colloquial language. Slang, however,
用语都属于俗语,
而俚语指的是为很多讲
refers to words and expressions understood by a large number of
这种语言的人理解但大多数人不把它们
speakers but not accepted as good, formal usage by the majority.
列入好的、
正式用法之内的词和短语;

Colloquial expressions and even slang may be found in standard
语甚至俚语都可能在标准字典中查到,

dictionaries
but
will
be
so
identified.
Both
colloquial
usage
and
是字典中会标明它们的性质。
俗语和俚语
slang
are
more
common
in
speech
than
in
writing.
Colloquial
词汇的应用都是口头较多、
笔头较少。

speech
often
passes
into
standard
speech.
Some
slang
also
语用法经常地被接受为标准用法。
一些俚
passes
into
standard speech,
but
other
slang
expressions
enjoy
语也变成了标准用法,
但另外一些俚语只
momentary
popularity
followed
by
obscurity.
In
some
cases,
the
经历了短暂的流行,而后就被弃之不用
majority
never
accepts

certain
slang
phrases
but
nevertheless
了。
有时候,
多数人从来不接受某些俚语,
retains them in their collective memories. Every generation seems
但是他们把这些俚语保存到集中记忆中。
to
require
its
own
set
of
words
to
describe
familiar
objects
and
每一代人似乎都需要独有的一套词汇来
events. It has been pointed out by a number of linguists that three
描述熟知的物体和事件。
很多语言学家指
cultural conditions are necessary for the creation of a large body
出,大量俚语的形成需要三个文化条件:
of
slang
expressions.
First,
the
introduction
and
acceptance
of
第一,
对社会中新事物的引入和接受;

new
objects
and
situations
in
the
society;
second,
a
diverse
二,一个由大量子群构成的多样化人口;
population
with
a
large
number
of
subgroups;
third,
association
第三,
各子群与多数人口之间的联系。

among
the
subgroups
and
the
majority
population.
Finally,
it
is
后需要 提到的是,

标准语



俗语


worth
noting
that
the
terms


and

俚语

这些术语只是对研究语言的专家才
exist
only
as
abstract
labels
for
scholars
who
study
language.
有用的抽象标签。
不论何种语言,
只会有
Only a tiny number of the speakers of any language will be aware
很小一部分使用者能够意识到他们是在
that they are using colloquial or slang expressions. Most speakers
使用俗语或俚语。
讲英语的多数人能够在
of
English
will,
during
appropriate
situations,
select
and
use
all
适当的场合中选择使用所有这三种语言
足了他们的愿望。

8

three types of expressions.
11 Archaeology
考古学

Archaeology
is
a
source
of
history,
not
just
a
humble
类型。

考古学是历史学的一个来源,而不是
auxiliary
discipline.
Archaeological
data
are
historical
地位卑微的辅助学科。考古学资料本身也
documents
in
their
own
right,
not
mere
illustrations
to
written
是一种历史文献,而不仅仅是文字资料的
texts.
Just
as
much
as
any
other
historian,
an
archaeologist
例证。正象任何一位历史学家那样,考古
studies
and
tries
to
reconstitute
the
process
that
has
created
学家研究调查并尽力去重构一个过程。这
the human world in which we live -- and us ourselves in so far
个过程创造了我们生活的人类世界,也创
as
we
are
each creatures
of
our
age
and
social
environment.
造了我们自身,因为我们都是我们所处的
Archaeological
data
are
all
changes
in
the
material
world
时代和社会环境的产物。考古学的资料就
resulting
from
human
action
or, more succinctly,
the
fossilized
是人类行为所造成的物质变化。更简洁地
results
of
human
behavior.
The
sum
total
of
these
constitutes
说,是石化了的人类行为。这些变化的总
what
may
be
called
the
archaeological
record.
This
record
和构成了我们所说的考古学记录。这些记
exhibits certain peculiarities and deficiencies the consequences
录自有其独特和不足之处,因而导致人们
of
which
produce
a
rather
superficial
contrast
between
对考古历史和更熟悉的文字记载历史进行
archaeological
history
and
the
more
familiar
kind
based
upon
相当肤浅的对比。并不是所有的人类行为
written records. Not all human behavior fossilizes. The words I
都留下化石。我说的话,你通过空气振动
utter and you
hear as vibrations in the air are certainly human
听见,这当然是人类造成的物质变化,也
changes
in
the
material
world
and
may
be
of
great
historical
可能有重大的历史意义,但这些话在考古
significance.
Yet
they
leave
no
sort
of
trace
in
the
学中未留下丝毫痕迹,除非有人用录音机
archaeological
records
unless
they
are
captured
by
a
录下来或文书把这些话写了下来。战场上
dictaphone or written down by a clerk. The movement of troops
军队的行动可能

改变历史的进程


但从考
on the battlefield may
古学的观点来看,这同样是难以捕捉的;
equally ephemeral from the archaeologist's standpoint. What is
可能更糟的是,多数有机物质会腐烂。任
perhaps
worse,
most
organic
materials
are
perishable.
何由木头、生皮、绒线、亚麻、草、毛发
Everything
made
of
wood,
hide,
wool,
linen,
grass,
hair,
and
以及相似物质做成的东西除非在一些非常
similar materials will decay and vanish in dust in a few years or
特殊的条件下,几年或几个世纪以后,会
centuries, save under very exceptional conditions. In a relatively
在尘土中腐烂并消失。在短时期内,能留
brief period the archaeological record is reduced to mere scraps
下考古记录的东西也都会退化为石头、骨
of
stone,
bone,
glass,
metal,
and
earthenware.
Still
modern
头、玻璃、金属和陶器的碎片。然而,现
archaeology,
by
applying
appropriate
techniques
and
代考古学通过运用适当的技术和比较的方
comparative
methods,
aided
by
a
few
lucky
finds
from
法,在从泥炭、沙漠和冻土中所获得的一
peat-bogs,
deserts,
and
frozen
soils,
is
able
to
fill
up
a
good
些幸运发现的辅助下,能够填充这个空缺
deal of the gap.
12 Museums
博物馆

From
Boston
to
Los
Angeles,
from
New
York
City
to
从波士顿到洛杉机,从纽约到芝加哥、
Chicago
to
Dallas,
museums
are
either
planning,
building,
or
到达拉斯,所有的博物馆或者正在筹划、
wrapping
up
wholesale
expansion
programs.
These
programs
建造或者正在完成大规模的扩建计划。这
already
have
radically
altered
facades
and
floor
plans
or
are
些计划或者已经根本性地改变了博物馆门
9
的很大部分。


expected to do so in the not-too-distant future. In New York City
面与展厅的设计,或者预期在不久的将来
alone, six major institutions have spread up and out into the air
会这样做。单单在纽约市,六个主要机构
space and neighborhoods around them or
are preparing to do
或者已经向空中和周围扩展,或者正准备
so. The reasons for this confluence of activity are complex, but
这样做。大家一致行动的原因是复杂多样
one
factor
is
a
consideration
everywhere
--
space.
With
的,但其中的一个因素是普遍考虑的空间
collections
expanding,
with
the
needs
and
functions
of
问题。随着收藏品的增多,也随着博物馆
museums changing, empty space has become a very precious
的需要和功能的变化,空间已经变成了一
commodity. Probably
nowhere
in
the
country
is
this more
true
项非常珍贵的商品。在我国,也许没有任
than
at
the
Philadelphia
Museum
of
Art,
which
has
needed
何其他地方比费城艺术博物馆更符合这个
additional
space
for
decades
and
which
received
its
last
事实。这个博物馆几十年来一直需要额外
significant facelift ten years ago. Because of the space crunch,
的空间,十年前进行了最后一次重大的翻
the
Art
Museum
has
become
increasingly
cautious
in
新。由于空间紧缺,该艺术博物馆在考虑
considering
acquisitions
and
donations
of
art,
in
some
cases
购买与受赠艺术品已越来越谨慎,有时甚
passing
up
opportunities
to
strengthen
its
collections.
至放弃增强艺术收藏的机会。由于博物馆
Deaccessing
--
or selling
off
--
works
of
art
has
taken
on
new
的空间问题,将艺术品脱手或者说卖掉已
importance
because
of
the
museum's
space
problems.
And
经有了新的重要意义。博物馆馆长们被迫
increasingly, curators have been forced to juggle gallery space,
巧妙轮换利用陈列馆的空间,轮流着把一
rotating one masterpiece into public view while another is sent
些艺术杰作向公众展出,而把另一些送入
to
storage.
Despite
the
clear
need
for
additional
gallery
and
存储室中。虽然对额外的陈列室和存储室
storage space, however,
空间需要很明显,但据费城艺术博物馆经
break out of its envelope in the next fifteen years,
理讲:

博物馆还没有在未来十五年打破这
Philadelphia Museum of Art's president.
13 Skyscrapers and Environment
摩天大楼与环境

In the late 1960's, many people in North America turned
60
年代后期,许多北美人把注意力转向
their
attention
to
environmental
problems,
and
new
了环境问题,那些崭新的玻璃钢摩天大楼受
steel-and-glass skyscrapers were widely criticized. Ecologists
到了广泛的批评。生态学家指出,城市中密
pointed
out
that
a
cluster
of
tall
buildings
in
a
city
often
集的高层建筑经常给公共交通与停车场的承
overburdens public transportation and parking lot capacities.
载能力造成过重的负担。摩天大楼还是电能
Skyscrapers
are
also
lavish
consumers,
and
wasters,
of
的过度消费者与浪费者。最近的某一年,纽
electric
power.
In
one
recent
year,
the
addition
of
17
million
约市摩天写字楼
1

700
万英尺办公面积的增
square feet of skyscraper office space in New York City raised
加使电能的最高日需求量提高了
120

000
the peak daily demand for electricity by 120, 000 kilowatts --
千瓦。这些电能足以供纽约的整个奥尔巴尼
enough
to
supply
the
entire
city
of
Albany,
New
York,
for
a
市使用一天。玻璃表面的摩天大楼特别地浪
day.
Glass-walled
skyscrapers
can
be
especially
wasteful.
费。
通过半英寸的平板玻璃墙壁损失
(
或增加
)
The heat loss (or gain) through a wall of half-inch plate glass
的热量是典型的加入绝缘板的石墙所允许的
is
more
than
ten
times
that
through
a
typical
masonry
wall
热量损失
(
或增加
)
的十倍以上。
为了减轻取暖
filled
with
insulation
board.
To
lessen
the
strain
on
heating
设备或空调设备的压力,摩天大楼的建造者
and air-conditioning equipment, builders of skyscrapers have
们已经开始使用双面上釉的玻璃镶板和涂上
begun
to
use
double-glazed
panels
of
glass,
and
reflective
了金色或银色反光薄膜的反光玻璃,来减少
个束缚的计划。

10

glasses
coated
with
silver
or
gold
mirror
films
that
reduce
强光照射和热量的增加;但是,镜面的摩天
glare
as
well
as
heat
gain.
However,
mirror- walled
大楼会提高周围空气的温度并会对附近的建
skyscrapers raise the temperature of the surrounding air and
筑物产生影响。摩天大楼也对城市的卫生设
affect neighboring buildings. Skyscrapers put a severe strain
施造成了沉重的压力。单单纽约市的二个世
on
a
city's
sanitation
facilities,
too.
If
fully
occupied,
the
two
界贸易中心大楼如果完全被占满的话,每年
World
Trade
Center
towers
in
New
York
City
would
alone
就会产生
2

250

000
加仑的污水。这相当
generate 2. 25 million gallons of raw sewage each year -- as
于康涅狄格州的斯坦福市这样大的城市一年
much as a city the size of Stanford, Connecticut, which has a
所产生的污水量,而康州的斯坦福市拥有
population of more than 109,000.
14 A Rare Fossil Record
罕见的化石记录

The
preservation
of
embryos
and
juveniles
is
a
rate
胚胎与幼体被保存下来在化石记录中
occurrence in the fossil record. The tiny, delicate skeletons are
是少见的事情。微小纤细的骨骼通常在石
usually
scattered
by
scavengers
or
destroyed
by
weathering
化前就被食腐肉的动物拆散了,或者被风
before they can be fossilized. Ichthyosaurs had a higher chance
化作用破坏掉了。鱼龙比起陆地的动物有
of
being
preserved
than
did
terrestrial
creatures
because,
as
更大的几率被保存下来,因为它们作为海
marine animals, they tended to live in environments less subject
洋动物常生活在腐蚀性较小的环境中。但
to
erosion.
Still,
their
fossilization
required
a
suite
of
factors:
a
是它们的石化需要一系列因素:软组织的
slow
rate
of
decay
of
soft
tissues,
little
scavenging
by
other
腐烂速度缓慢,很少被其他动物残食,缺
animals, a lack of swift currents and waves to jumble and carry
少混杂、冲走小骨头的快速水流和波浪,
away small
bones,
and
fairly
rapid
burial.
Given
these
factors,
以及相当快地被掩埋。
当这些因素存在时,
some
areas
have
become
a
treasury
of
well-preserved
某些地区就会变成一个充满保存完好的鱼
ichthyosaur
fossils.
The
deposits
at
Holzmaden,
Germany,
龙化石的宝库。在德国获尔兹梅登,那儿
present
an
interesting
case
for
analysis.
The
ichthyosaur
的沉积物给人们提出了一个有趣的分析案
remains are found in black, bituminous marine shales deposited
例。人们在黑色的、含沥青的海洋页岩中
about
190
million
years
ago.
Over
the
years,
thousands
of
发现了约
19

000
年前沉积下来的鱼龙化
specimens of marine reptiles, fish and invertebrates have been
石。几年时间内,在这些岩石中取得了数
recovered
from
these
rocks.
The
quality
of
preservation
is
以千计的海洋爬行动物、鱼类以及无脊椎
outstanding, but what is even more impressive is the number of
动物的标本。它们的保存质量非常的好,
ichthyosaur fossils containing preserved embryos. Ichthyosaurs
但更令人称奇的是保存下来的育有胚胎的
with embryos have been reported from 6 different
levels of the
鱼龙化石数目。在获尔兹梅登附近一个小
shale
in
a
small
area
around
Holzmaden,
suggesting
that
a
地区的六个不同的页岩层中分别发现了育
specific
site
was
used
by
large
numbers
of
ichthyosaurs
有胚胎的鱼龙化石。这表明大量的鱼龙经
repeatedly over time. The embryos are quite advanced in their
年累月重复使用一个特定的地点。那些胚
physical
development;
their
paddles,
for
example,
are
already
胎已经发育得相当完整了。比如,它们的
well formed. One specimen is even preserved in the birth canal.
蹼桨已经完全形成了。有一个标本甚至被
In
addition,
the
shale
contains
the
remains
of many
newborns
保存在产道中。而且,那块页岩包含着很
that are between 20 and 30 inches long. Why are there so many
多在
20

30
英寸之间的新生幼体的化石。pregnant
females
and
young
at
Holzmaden
when
they
are
so
为什么在其他地方那么稀少的怀孕雌兽和
rare
elsewhere?
The
quality
of
preservation
is
almost
幼体在获尔兹梅登却那么多呢
?
因为其保
109
000
人口。

11

unmatched
and
quarry
operations
have
been
carried
out
存质量几乎举世无双,采集工作的进行一
carefully with an awareness of the value of the fossils. But these
直是一丝不苟的。大家都认识到这些化石
factors do not account for the interesting question of how there
的价值极其珍贵,但这些因素并不能解释
came to be such a concentration of pregnant ichthyosaurs in a
这个有趣的问题:为什么在一个特定的地
particular place very close to their time of giving birth.
点会如此集中地出现即将临产的怀孕鱼龙
群呢
?
15 The Nobel Academy
诺贝尔委员会

For
the
last
82
years,
Sweden's
Nobel
Academy
has
过去的
82
年里,
瑞典的诺贝尔委员会
decided
who
will
receive
the Nobel
Prize
in
Literature,
thereby
决定了谁将获得诺贝尔文学奖,因此也就
determining
who
will
be
elevated
from
the
great
and
the
near
决定了谁将从伟大或近乎伟大荣升为不
great to the
immortal. But today the Academy is coming under
朽。但在今天,该委员会却遭到了评选委
heavy
criticism
both
from
the
without
and
from
within.
Critics
员会内外的猛烈批评。批评者们争论说:

contend
that
the
selection
of
the
winners
often
has
less
to
do
评选获奖者时,起作用更大的不是真实的
with true writing ability than with the peculiar internal
politics of
写作能力,而是该委员会以及瑞典特有的
the
Academy
and
of
Sweden
itself.
According
to
Ingmar
内部政治。按照瑞典两家主要报纸之一的
Bjorksten, the cultural editor for one of the country's two major
文化版编 辑
IngmarBjorksten
的说法,该
newspapers, the prize continues to represent
文学奖仍然是

人们所说的一种非常瑞典
a
very
Swedish
exercise:
reflecting
Swedish
tastes.

The
式的做为:
反映瑞典口味

。对于其评选过
Academy
has
defended
itself
against
such
charges
of
程中目光短浅的指责,该委员会辩护说,
provincialism
in
its
selection
by
asserting
that
its
physical
该委员会与世界几大文学之都相距遥远,
distance
from
the
great
literary
capitals
of
the
world
actually
实际上使该委员会免受外来的干扰。这也
serves
to
protect
the
Academy
from
outside
influences.
This
许是对的,但批评者们反驳说,也正因为
may well be true, but critics respond that this very distance may
相距如此遥远,该委员会才不能准确地把
also
be
responsible
for
the
Academy's
inability
to
perceive
握文学界的真正趋势。尽管对评选程序存
accurately
authentic
trends
in
the
literary
world.
Regardless
of
在着关注,该文学奖将继续作为世人最为
concerns over the selection process, however, it seems that the
推崇的文学的标志而存在,并将继续是作
prize will continue to survive both as an indicator of the literature
家们难以达到却又会不断追逐的目标。如
that we most highly praise, and as an elusive goal that writers
果不考虑其他因素,而仅仅考虑与之俱来
seek.
If
for
no
other
reason,
the
prize
will
continue
to
be
的经济利益,该奖也将继续为人所渴求:
desirable for the financial rewards that accompany it; not only is
这不仅因为该奖本身就是一笔可观的现金
the
cash
prize
itself
considerable,
but
it
also
dramatically
收入,而且该奖还将极大地增加一个作家
increases sales of an author's books.
16 The War between Britain and France
英法战争

In
the
late
eighteenth
century,
battles
raged
in
almost

18
世纪后期,战争爆发于欧洲大陆
every corner
of
Europe,
as
well
as
in
the Middle
East,
South
的几乎每一个角落,在中东、南非、西印度
Africa, the West Indies, and Latin America. In reality, however,
群岛、拉丁美洲亦都是如此。然而实际上,
there was only one major war during this time, the war between
在这一时期只有一场主要的战争,
那就是英
Britain and France. All other battles were ancillary to this larger
法之间的战争。
所有其他战争都服从于这一
conflict,
and
were
often
at
least
partially
related
to
its
更大的争端,
至少是与这两个对手的目标和
12
的著作的销量。


antagonists'
goals
and
strategies.
France
sought
total
战略有某些关联。法国力图统治整个欧洲,
domination
of
Europe.
This
goal
was
obstructed
by
British
而英国的自主及其力图在整个欧洲大陆挫
independence and Britain's efforts throughout the continent to
败拿破仑的种种努力都是法国实现这一目
thwart
Napoleon;
through
treaties,
Britain
built
coalitions
(not
标的障碍。英国通过条约建立了联盟
(
和今
dissimilar
in
concept
to
today's
NATO)
guaranteeing
British
天北约的概念没有什么不同
)
以保证英国插
participation
in
all
major
European
conflicts.
These
two
手所有欧洲的主要争端。
这两个对头并不是
antagonists
were
poorly
matched,
insofar
as
they
had
very
一对好对手,
因为他们的力量极不均衡:

unequal strengths: France was predominant on land, Britain at
兰西在陆地上称王,英格兰则在海上称霸。
sea. The French knew that, short of defeating the British navy,
法国人明白,
如果不能击败英国海军,他们
their only hope of victory was to close all the ports of Europe to
胜利的唯一希望就是让欧洲的所有港口都
British ships. Accordingly, France set out to overcome Britain
对英国舰船关闭。于是,法国将其军事占领
by
extending
its
military
domination
from
Moscow
to
Lisbon,
从莫斯科延伸到里斯本,
从尤特兰延伸到卡
from
Jutland
to
Calabria.
All
of
this
entailed
tremendous
risk,
拉布里亚,企图以此来制服英国。
所有这些
because France did not have the military resources to control
行动包含着巨大的风险,
因为法国并不具备
this much territory and still protect itself and maintain order at
足够的军事资源,来控制这么多地盘,同时
home.
French
strategists calculated
that
a
navy
of
150
ships
又能保护自己,维持国内的秩序。
法国战略
would
provide
the
force
necessary
to
defeat
the
British
navy.
家们的算盘是,其海军若拥有
150
艘军舰,
Such a force would give France a three-to-two advantage over
则将足以击跨英国海军。
这样的武力将使法
Britain.
This
advantage
was
deemed
necessary
because
of
国对英国具有
3

2
的优 势。
这种优势被认
Britain's superior sea skills and technology, and also because
为是必不可少的,
因为英国人具有超群的海
Britain would be fighting a defensive war, allowing it to win with
上技能和技术,并且打的是一场防御战争,
fewer
forces.
Napoleon
never
lost
sight
of
his
goal,
because
使它能以少胜多。拿破仑从未忘却他的目
Britain
represented
the
last
substantial
impediment
to
his
标,
因为英国是他统治全欧的最后一个重大
control
of
Europe.
As
his
force
neared
that
goal,
Napoleon
的障碍。随着他的力量越来越靠近这个目
grew increasingly impatient and began planning an immediate
标,拿破仑变得越来越不耐烦起来,开始策
attack.
17 Evolution of Sleep
睡眠的进化

Sleep
is
very
ancient.
In
the
electroencephalographic
睡眠是古老的。
从脑电图上看,
我们人
sense we share it with all the primates and almost all the other
类和所有灵长目动物以及几乎所有的哺乳
mammals and birds: it may extend back as far as the reptiles.
动物和鸟类都一样需要睡眠;
甚至爬行类动
There is some evidence that the two types of sleep, dreaming
物也有睡眠。
有证据显示,
有梦睡眠和无梦
and dreamless, depend on the life-style of the animal, and that
睡眠这两种类型的睡眠取决于该动物的生
predators are statistically much more likely to dream than prey,
活方式。
从统计上看,
食肉动物比被捕食动
which
are
in
turn
much
more
likely
to
experience
dreamless
物有更多的有梦睡眠,
而被捕食动物更多地
sleep. In dream sleep, the animal is powerfully immobilized and
无梦睡眠。
动物在有梦睡眠时,
被有效地解
remarkably
unresponsive
to
external stimuli.
Dreamless sleep
除动作能力,
并且对外界刺激缺乏反应。

is
much
shallower,
and
we
have
all
witnessed
cats
or
dogs
梦睡眠则要浅得多。
我们都看到过猫和狗在
cocking their ears to a sound when apparently fast asleep. The
显然的酣睡中,有一点响动耳朵就会竖起
fact
that
deep
dream
sleep
is
rare
among
prey
today
seems
来。
被捕食动物很少有深度的有梦睡眠,

划立即攻击。

13

clearly to be a product of natural selection, and it makes sense
看来显然是自然选择的结果。
而且这一点是
that today, when sleep is highly evolved, the stupid animals are
有道理的:
当睡眠高度进化以后,
愚笨的动
less frequently immobilized by deep sleep than the smart ones.
物比聪明的动物更少在深度睡眠状态下丧
But why should they sleep deeply at all? Why should a state of
失动作能力。
但是动物为什么要进入深度睡
such
deep
immobilization
ever
have
evolved?
Perhaps
one
眠呢
?
为什么这样的无动作状态也会进化出
useful hint about the original function of sleep is to be found in
来呢
?
海豚、鲸鱼以及水生哺乳动物睡眠都
the
fact
that
dolphins
and
whales
and
aquatic
mammals
in
极少,
这一事实可以给睡眠的根本功能提供
general
seem
to
sleep
very
little.
There
is,
by
and
large,
no
有用的线索。
海洋中是没有藏身之处的。

place
to
hide
in
the
ocean.
Could
it
be
that,
rather
than
不会是这样,
睡眠不但不增加动物受伤害的
increasing an animal's vulnerability, the function of sleep is to
可能性,反而是减少了这种可能性呢
?
佛罗
decrease it? Wilse Webb of the University of Florida and Ray




WilseWebb




学的
Meddis
of
London
University
have
suggested
this
to
be
the
RayMeddis
认为情况就是如此。可以想像
case.
It
is
conceivable
that
animals
who
are
too
stupid
to
be
得出,
在危险的时刻,
那些由于太愚笨而不
quiet
on
their
own
initiative
are,
during
periods
of
high
risk,
能自动保持安静的动物,
会不由自主地变得
immobilized by the implacable arm of sleep. The point seems
动弹不得。
这一点在食肉动物的幼兽身上表
particularly clear for the young of predatory animals. This is an
现得特别明显。这是一个很有意思的看法,
interesting notion and probably at least partly true.
18 Modern American Universities
现代美国大学

Before
the
1850's,
the
United
States
had
a
number
of
small
19
世纪
50
年代以前美国有一些小
colleges, most of them dating from colonial days. They were small,
的学院,大多数成立于殖民时期。它们
church
connected
institutions
whose
primary
concern
was
to
是与教会挂钩的小机构,主要目的是培
shape
the
moral
character
of
their students.
Throughout
Europe,
养学生的道德品行。当时在欧洲各地,
institutions of higher learning had developed, bearing the ancient
高等教育机构已经发展起来,用的是一
name
of
university.
In
Germany
a
different
kind
of
university
had
个古老的名称
--
大学。
德国已经发展出一
developed.
The
German
university
was concerned
primarily
with
种不同类型的大学。德国大学关心的主
creating
and
spreading
knowledge,
not
morals.
Between
要是创造知识和传播知识,而不是道德
midcentury
and
the
end
of
the
1800's,
more
than
nine
thousand
教育。从世纪中叶到世纪末,有
9000
young Americans, dissatisfied with their training at home, went to
多名美国青年因不满国内所受的教育而
Germany for advanced study. Some of them returned to
become
赴德深造。他们中的一些人回国后成为
presidents of venerable colleges -- Harvard, Yale, Columbia -- and
一些知 名学府
--
哈佛、
耶鲁、
哥伦比亚的
transform them into modern universities. The new presidents broke
校长并且把这些学府转变成了现代意义
all
ties
with
the
churches
and
brought
in
a
new
kind
of
faculty.
的大学。
新校长们断绝了和教会的关系,
Professors
were
hired
for
their
knowledge
of
a
subject,
not
聘请了新型的教职员,聘用教授根据的
because
they
were
of
the
proper
faith
and
had
a
strong
arm
for
是他们在学科方面的知识,而不是正确
disciplining students. The new principle was that a
university was
的信仰和约束学生的强硬手段。新的原
to
create
knowledge
as
well
as
pass
it
on,
and
this
called
for
a
则是大学既要传播知识也要创造知识。
faculty composed of teacher-scholars. Drilling and learning by rote
这就需要由学者型老师组成教工队伍。
were
replaced
by
the
German
method
of
lecturing,
in
which
the
靠死记硬背和做练习来学习的方法变为
professor's
own
research
was
presented
in
class.
Graduate
德国式的讲解方法。德国式的讲解就是
它至少部分是正确的。

14

training
leading
to
the
Ph.
D.
,
an
ancient
German
degree
由教授讲授自己的研究课题。通过研究
signifying the highest level of
advanced scholarly attainment, was
生性质的学习可以获得表明最高学术造
introduced.
With
the
establishment
of
the
seminar
system,
诣的古老的德国学位
--
博士学位。
随着讨
graduate students learned to question, analyze, and conduct their
论课制度的建立,
研究生们学会了提问、
own
research.
At
the
same
time,
the
new
university
greatly
分析以及开展他们自己的研究。同时,
expanded in size and course offerings, breaking completely out of
新式大学学校规模和课程设置完全突破
the
old,
constricted
curriculum
of mathematics,
classics, rhetoric,
了过去那种只有数学、经典著作、美学
and
music.
The
president
of
Harvard
pioneered
the
elective
和音乐的狭窄课程表。哈佛大学的校长
system, by which students were able to choose their own courses
率先推出选课制度,这样学生们就能选
of
study.
The
notion
of
major
fields
of
study
emerged.
The
new
择自己的专业。主修领域的概念也出现
goal was to make the university relevant to the real pursuits of the
了。新的目标是使大学对实际社会更有
world. Paying close heed to the practical needs of society, the new
用。密切关注着社会上的实际需求,新
universities
trained
men
and
women
to
work
at
its
tasks,
with
的大学着意培养学生解决问题的能力。
engineering
students
being
the
most
characteristic
of
the
new
工程系学生成为新式教育体制下最典型
regime.
Students
were
also
trained
as
economists,
architects,
的学生。
学生们还被培训成为经济学家、
agriculturalists, social welfare workers, and teachers.
建筑师、农学家、社会工作人员以及教
师。

19 Children's Numerical Skills
儿童的数学能力

People
appear
to
be
born
to
compute.
The
numerical
人似乎生来就会计算。孩子们使用数字
skills of children develop so early and so inexorably that it
is
的技能发展得如此之早和如此必然,很容易
easy
to
imagine
an
internal
clock
of
mathematical
maturity
让人想象有一个内在的精确而成熟的数字钟
guiding their growth. Not long
after learning to walk and talk,
在指导他们的成长。孩子们在学会走路和说
they can set the table with impressive accuracy -- one knife,
话后不久,
就能以令人惊叹的准确布置桌子
--
one spoon, one fork, for each of the five chairs. Soon they are
五把椅子前面分别摆上一把刀、一个汤匙、
capable
of
noting
that
they
have
placed
five knives, spoons
一把叉子。很快地,他们就能知道他们已在
and
forks
on
the
table
and,
a
bit
later,
that
this
amounts
to
桌面上摆放了五把刀、五个汤匙、
五把叉子。
fifteen
pieces
of
silverware.
Having
thus
mastered
addition,
没有多久,他们就又能知道这些东西加起来
they
move
on
to subtraction.
It
seems
almost
reasonable
to
总共是
15
把银餐具。
如此这般地掌握了加法
expect that if a child were secluded on a desert island at birth
之后,他们又转向减法。有一种设想几乎顺
and
retrieved
seven
years
later,
he
or
she
could
enter
a
理成章,那就是,即使一个孩子一出生就被
second-grade
mathematics
class
without
any
serious
隔绝到荒岛上,七年后返回世间,也能直接
problems of intellectual adjustment. Of course, the truth is not
上小学二年级的数学课,而不会碰到任何智
so
simple.
This
century,
the
work
of cognitive
psychologists
力调整方面的大麻烦。当然,事实并没有这
has
illuminated
the
subtle
forms
of
daily
learning
on
which
么简单。本世纪认知心理学家的工作已经揭
intellectual
progress
depends.
Children
were
observed
as
示了智力发展所依赖的日常学习的微妙形
they slowly grasped -- or, as the case might be, bumped into
式。他们观察到孩子们缓慢掌握那些成年人
-- concepts that adults take for granted, as they refused, for
认为理所当然的概念的过程,或者是孩子们
instance,
to
concede
that
quantity
is
unchanged
as
water
偶然遇到这些概念的过程。他们也观察到孩
pours
from
a
short
stout
glass
into
a
tall
thin
one.
子们拒绝承认某些常识的情况。比如:孩子
15

Psychologists
have since
demonstrated
that young
children,
们拒绝承认当水从短而粗的瓶中倒入细而长
asked to count the pencils in a pile, readily report the number
的瓶子中时,水的数量没有变化。心理学家
of
blue
or
red
pencils,
but
must
be
coaxed
into
finding
the
们而后又展示一个例子,即:让孩子们数一
total.
Such
studies
have
suggested
that
the
rudiments
of
堆铅笔时,他们能顺利地报出蓝铅笔或红铅
mathematics
are
mastered
gradually,
and
with
effort.
They
笔的数目,但却需诱导才能报出总的数目。
have
also
suggested
that
the
very
concept
of
abstract
此类研究表明:数学基础是经过逐渐努力后
numbers - the idea of a oneness, a twoness, a threeness that
掌握的。他们还表示抽象的数字概念,如可
applies to any class of objects and is a prerequisite for doing
表示任何一类物品并且是在做比摆桌子有更
anything more mathematically demanding than setting a table
高数学要求的任何事时都必备的一、二、三
- is itself far from innate.
意识,远远不是天生就具备的。

20 The Historical Significance of American Revolution
美国革命的历史意义

The
ways
of
history
are so
intricate
and
the
motivations
of
历史的进程是如此错综复杂,
人类行
human actions so complex that it is always hazardous to attempt
为的动机是如此令人费解,
以至于想把那
to represent events covering a number of years, a multiplicity of
些时间跨度大,
涉及人数多,
空间范围广
persons,
and
distant
localities
as
the
expression
of
one
的事件描述成为一个智者或一场社会运
intellectual or social movement; yet the historical process which
动的表现的企图是危险的。然而以托马
culminated in the ascent of Thomas Jefferson to the presidency
斯·杰弗逊登上总统宝座为高潮的那一段
can be regarded as the outstanding example not only of the birth
历史过程可以被视为一个特殊的例子。

of a new way of life but of nationalism as a new way of life. The
这段历史时期里不仅诞生了新的生活方
American
Revolution
represents
the
link
between
the
式,
而且民族主义成为了一种新的生活方
seventeenth
century,
in
which
modern
England
became
式。美国独立战争成为联结
17
世纪现代
conscious of itself, and the awakening of modern Europe at the
英格兰的自我意识和
18
世纪末现代欧洲
end
of
the
eighteenth
century.
It
may
seem
strange
that
the
的觉醒的纽带。
历史的行程需要跨越大西
march of history should have had to cross the Atlantic Ocean, but
洋,这看起来似乎有些奇怪,
但却只有在
only
in
the
North
American
colonies
could
a
struggle
for
civic
北美殖民地为民权和自由的斗争才能导
liberty
lead
also
to
the
foundation
of
a
new
nation.
Here,
in
the
致新国家的建立。这里,反对

暴政

的民
popular rising against a
众起义的成果不仅是获得一个包含更多
more than the securing of a freer constitution. They included the
自由的宪法,
还包括了一个依照人民的意
growth
of
a
nation
born
in
liberty
by
the
will
of
the
people,
not
愿诞生在自由中的国家的成长。
这个国家
from
the
roots
of
common
descent,
a
geographic
entity,
or
the
不是基于血缘、
地理、
君主或王朝的野心。
ambitions
of
king
or
dynasty.
With
the
American
nation,
for
the
由于有了美国,
第一次一个国家的诞生不
first
time,
a
nation
was
born,
not
in
the
dim
past
of
history
but
是发生在历史模糊的过去,
而是在全世界
before the eyes of the whole world.
21 The Origin of Sports
体育的起源

When
did
sport
begin?
If
sport
is,
in
essence,
play,
the
体育运动开始于何时
?
如果体育运动的
claim might be made that sport is much older than humankind,
本质就是游戏的话,
我们就可以宣称体育运
for, as we all have observed, the
beasts play. Dogs and cats
动比人类古老,因为正如我们所观察到的,
wrestle and play ball games. Fishes and birds dance. The apes
野兽也进行嬉戏。狗和猫会扭抱玩球,鱼和
have
simple,
pleasurable
games.
Frolicking
infants,
school
鸟翩翩起舞,
猿类会进行一些简单的、愉快
16
人们的眼前。


children playing tag, and adult arm wrestlers are demonstrating
的游戏。雀跃的幼儿,捉迷藏的学童和成年
strong,
transgenerational
and
transspecies
bonds
with
the
摔跤者展示出人与动物界的有力的跨越世
universe of animals - past, present, and future. Young animals,
代与物种的永恒的联系
--
特别是幼兽,它们
particularly,
tumble,
chase,
run,
wrestle,
mock,
imitate,
and
翻筋斗、追逐、
奔跑、扭打、模仿、嬉笑
(

laugh(or so it seems) to the point of delighted exhaustion. Their
者看起来是
)
,直到愉快地精疲力尽。他们
play, and ours, appears to serve no other purpose than to give
的玩耍,同我们的一样,似乎并没有别的目
pleasure
to
the
players,
and
apparently,
to
remove
us
的而只是给游戏者以愉悦,
暂时把我们从严
temporarily
from
the
anguish
of
life
in
earnest.
Some
肃生活的痛苦中拉出来。
一些哲学家称我们
philosophers
have
claimed
that
our
playfulness
is
the
most
的嬉戏是我们本质中最崇高的部分。
依他们
noble part of our basic nature.
In
their
generous conceptions,
这些随意性很大的见解,
游戏无害而且实验
play
harmlessly
and
experimentally
permits
us
to
put
our
性地允许我们的创造力、
幻想和想象发挥作
creative
forces,
fantasy,
and
imagination
into
action.
Play
is
用。
游戏让人们从永不间断亦不可避免的生
release
from
the
tedious
battles
against
scarcity
and
decline
活悲剧
-
与乏匮和衰退进行的枯燥抗争中得
which are the incessant, and inevitable, tragedies of life. This is
到一种解脱。
这是一个令人兴奋、
给人启发
a grand conception that excites and provokes. The holders of
的伟大见解。
这种见解的持有者宣称,我们
this view claim that the origins of our highest accomplishments
的最高成就如宗教典礼、文学、法律的起源
-
liturgy,
literature,
and
law
-
can
be
traced
to
a
play
impulse
可以追溯到游戏的冲动。
但令人不解的是我
which,
paradoxically,
we
see
most
purely
enjoyed
by
young
们看到只有幼兽和小孩子才最纯粹地享受
beasts
and
children.
Our
sports,
in
this
rather
happy,
着这种冲动。
从这种比较豁达和非宿命的人
nonfatalistic
view
of
human
nature,
are
more
splendid
性观来看,我们的运动是超时代、
跨物种的
creations of the nondatable, transspecies play impulse.
22 Collectibles
收藏品

Collectibles have been a part of almost every culture since
从古代开始,收藏品就是文化的一部
ancient
times.
Whereas
some
objects
have
been
collected
for
分。一些物品因它们的有用性被收藏,而
their
usefulness,
others
have
been
selected
for
their
aesthetic
另一些则纯粹因为它们的美被收藏。在美
beauty
alone.
In
the
United
States,
the
kinds
of
collectibles
国,当今流行的收藏品种类从传统物件,
currently popular range from traditional objects such as stamps,
如邮票、硬币、珍本书籍、艺术品,到更
coins,
rare
books,
and
art
to more
recent
items
of
interest
like
近期一些的有趣的东西,
如布娃娃、
瓶子、
dolls,
bottles,
baseball
cards,
and
comic
books.
Interest
in
垒球卡、连环漫画册。对收藏品的兴趣在
collectibles
has
increased
enormously
during
the
past
decade,
过去十年中大大地增长,部分原因是一些
in part because some collectibles have demonstrated their value
收藏品显示出了它们的投资价值。尤其在
as
investments.
Especially
during
cycles
of
high
inflation,
高通货膨胀时期,投资者尽量购买那些至
investors
try
to
purchase
tangibles
that
will
at
least
retain
their
少会保持他们现有市场价值的有形资产。
current
market
values.
In
general,
the
most
traditional
一般来说,最传统的收藏品受青睐,因为
collectibles
will
be
sought
because
they
have
preserved
their
它们多年后仍保持其价值。它们拥有完善
value
over
the
years,
there
is
an
organized
auction
market
for
的拍卖市场,在需要现金的时候最容易被
them,
and
they
are
most
easily
sold
in
the
event
that
cash
is
卖掉。
一些最稳当的收藏品是古老的画作、
needed. Some examples of the most stable collectibles are old
中国陶器、邮票、硬币、珍本书籍、古代
masters, Chinese ceramics, stamps, coins, rare books, antique
珠宝、银器、瓷器、著名艺术家的作品、
辉煌的创造。

17

jewelry,
silver,
porcelain,
art
by
well-known
artists,
autographs,
亲笔签名和有时代特征的家具。其它更近
and period furniture. Other items of more recent interest include
期的物品有旧唱片、旧杂志、明信片、垒
old
photograph
records,
old
magazines,
post
cards,
baseball
球卡片、彩色玻璃、布娃娃、早期汽车、
cards, art glass, dolls, classic cars, old bottles, and comic books.
古瓶和连环画册。作为短期投资这些相对
These
relatively
new
kinds
of
collectibles
may
actually
说来较新颖的收藏品的确可能更快地增
appreciate
faster
as
short-term
investments,
but
may
not
hold
值,但作为长期投资则可能不能保值。一
their value as long-term investments. Once a collectible has had
旦一件收藏品有了它第一次交易,它便以
its initial play, it appreciates at a fairly steady rate, supported by
一个相当稳定的比率增值,这个增值率受
an
increasing
number
of
enthusiastic
collectors
competing
for
到越来越多的热情的收藏者的支持,他们
the limited supply of collectibles that become increasingly more
为有限的而且越来越难找到的收藏品而竞
difficult to locate.
23 Henry Ford
亨利·福特

Although
Henry
Ford's
name
is
closely
associated
with
the
尽管亨利·福特的名字和大生产的
concept
of
mass
production,
he
should
receive
equal
credit
for
概念相连,
但他在劳工保护上得到同样
introducing
labor
practices
as
early
as
1913
that
would
be
的赞誉,
因为他早在
1913
年便实行了
considered advanced even by today's standards. Safety measures
用今天的标准来衡量依然是先进的标
were
improved,
and
the
work
day
was
reduced
to
eight
hours,
准。
安全措施得到改进,
日工作时间从
compared
with
the
ten-or
twelve-hour
day common
at
the
time.
In
当时普遍的
10

12
小时减少到
8

order to accommodate the shorter work day, the entire factory was
时。
为了适应更短的日工作时间,
整个
converted from two to three shifts. In addition, sick leaves as well as
工厂从双班变成了三班。
而且,
病假和
improved medical care for those injured on the
job were instituted.
改善了的工伤医疗得以制度化。
福特汽
The Ford Motor Company was one of the first factories to develop a
车公司是最早建立技术学校来培训专
technical school to train specialized skilled laborers and an English
门技工和为移民开设英语学校的工厂
language
school for
immigrants.
Some
efforts
were
even made
to
之一。
公司甚至为雇佣残疾人和有前科
hire the handicapped and provide jobs for former convicts. The most
的人而作出了一些努力。
最受广泛称赞
widely
acclaimed
innovation
was
the
five-dollar-a- day
minimum
的革新是实行五美元一天的最低工资。
wage
that
was
offered
in
order
to
recruit
and
retain
the
best
其目的是招收和留住那些最好的技工
mechanics
and
to
discourage
the
growth
of
labor
unions.
Ford
并阻碍工会的发展。
福特从效率和利润
explained
the
new
wage
policy
in
terms
of
efficiency
and
profit
分享的角度来解释这项新的工资政策。
sharing.
He
also
mentioned
the
fact
that
his
employees
would
be
他也提到这样一个事实,
他的员工可以
able
to
purchase
the
automobiles
that
they
produced
--
in
effect
买他们生产的汽车
--
这实际上是为其
creating a market for the product. In order to qualify for the minimum
产品另开辟了一个市场。
为了够资格得
wage,
an
employee
had
to
establish
a
decent
home
and
到最低工资,
员工必须建立一个得体的
demonstrate
good
personal
habits,
including
sobriety,
thriftiness,
家庭并显示出良好的个人习惯,
包括节
industriousness,
and
dependability.
Although
some
criticism
was
制、
俭省、
勤勉和可靠。
虽然有人批评
directed at Ford for involving himself too much in the personal lives
福特过多地干涉了员工的私人生活,

of
his
employees,
there
can
be
no
doubt
that,
at
a
time
when
毫无疑问,
在移民们被用恶劣的方式剥
immigrants were being taken advantage
of in frightful ways, Henry
削的时代,亨利·福特却帮助了许多人
Ford was helping many people to establish themselves in America.
在美国扎下根来。

争。

18

24 Piano
钢琴

The
ancestry
of
the
piano
can
be
traced
to
the
early
钢琴的家系可以追溯至
15

16
世纪
keyboard
instruments
of
the
fifteenth
and
sixteenth
centuries
--
早期的键盘乐器,
包括小型拨弦琴、洋琴
the
spinet,
the
dulcimer,
and
the
virginal.
In
the
seventeenth
和维金娜琴。
17
世纪时风琴、
敲弦琴和拨
century
the
organ,
the
clavichord,
and
the
harpsichord
became
弦琴成为键盘乐器类的主要成员。
这种至
the
chief
instruments
of
the
keyboard
group,
a
supremacy
they
高无上的地位一直为它们所保持,
直到
18
maintained
until
the
piano
supplanted
them
at
the
end
of
the
世纪末期钢琴将它们取代。
敲弦古钢琴的
eighteenth century. The clavichord's tone was metallic and never
音调有金属的音质,缺乏雄劲。然而由于
powerful; nevertheless, because of the variety of tone possible to
它的音调变化多,许多作曲家发现对于亲
it,
many
composers
found
the
clavichord
a
sympathetic
切的室内乐是一种得体的乐器。人们最喜
instrument for intimate chamber music. The harpsichord with its
欢用具备明快有力音调的拨弦古钢琴来
bright,
vigorous
tone
was
the
favorite
instrument
for
supporting
配合当时小型管弦乐团的低音乐器以及
the bass of the small orchestra of the period and for concert use,
在演奏会上演奏。但它的音调难以变化,
but
the
character
of
the
tone
could
not
be
varied
save
by
除非使用机械或构件装置。
18
世纪早期的
mechanical or structural devices. The piano was perfected in the
意大利,钢琴在一位拨琴钢琴制造者手中
early eighteenth century by a harpsichord maker in Italy(though
得到完善
(
尽管音乐理论家们指出有更早
musicologists
point
out
several
previous
instances
of
the
的例子
)
。这种乐器 被称为
pianoeforte(

instrument). This instrument was called a piano e forte (soft and
大利语,
柔和而响亮的
)

以显示它有力的
loud), to indicate its dynamic versatility; its strings were struck by
多样性。演奏者用一个头部带皮毡的弹击
a
recoiling
hammer
with
a
felt- padded
head.
The
wires
were
乐锤敲击琴弦。更早的这种乐器之上的金
much heavier in the earlier instruments. A series of mechanical
属丝要重得多。从此,持续到
19
世纪的
improvements
continuing
well
into
the
nineteenth
century,
一系列机械上的改进,包括引入踏板以维
including the introduction of pedals to sustain tone or to soften it,
持音调或使其柔和,改善金属框架,以及
the
perfection
of
a
metal
frame,
and
steel
wire
of
the
finest
使用最佳性能的钢丝,最终产生了一种具
quality,
finally
produced
an
instrument
capable
of
myriad
tonal
备无数音调效果的乐器。这些效果涵盖了
effects from the most delicate harmonies to an almost orchestral
从最精致的和声到几乎全部的管弦乐音
fullness
of
sound,
from
a
liquid,
singing
tone
to
a
sharp,
响,从明快流畅的吟唱的音调到尖锐的打
percussive brilliance.
25 Movie Music
电影插曲

Accustomed though we are to speaking of the
films made
尽管我们习惯于将
1927
年以前的电
before 1927 as
影称为

无声电影


但是就无声这个词完整
of
the
word,
silent.
From
the
very
beginning,
music
was
的意义上来说,电影从未真正的无声过,
regarded
as
an
indispensable
accompaniment;
when
the
从最初开始音乐就被视为必不可少的伴
Lumiere films were shown at the first public film exhibition in the
奏。
当卢米埃尔的电影在
1896

2
月美国United
States
in
February
1896,
they
were
accompanied
by
首届影片公映展览上放映的时候,影片便
piano improvisations on popular tunes. At first, the music played
用当时的流行曲临场钢琴伴奏。最初,这
bore no special relationship to the films; an accompaniment of
些音乐伴奏与电影没有什么特别的关系,
any kind was sufficient. Within a very short time, however, the
用什么曲子伴奏都行。但在很短的时间内,
incongruity
of
playing
lively
music
to
a
solemn
film
became
为一部庄重的影片演奏快活的音乐所产生
击乐器的清晰动人的恢宏气势。

19

apparent, and film pianists began to take some care in matching
的不协调感变得显而易见,因此钢琴家们
their pieces to the mood of the film. As movie theaters grew in
开始注意将自己的作品与影片的情调结合
number and importance, a violinist, and perhaps a cellist, would
起来。随着影剧院在数量上与重要性上的
be added to the pianist in certain cases, and in the larger movie
不断增长,在一些场合,除了钢琴师外,
theaters small orchestras were formed. For a number of years
还要加上小提琴师,或许还有一位大提琴
the
selection
of
music
for
each
film
program
rested
entirely
in
师。较大的影剧院里还组成了小型的管弦
the hands of the conductor or leader of the orchestra, and very
乐队。在很长的时间内,为各部影片选择
often the principal qualification for holding such a position was
配乐完全掌握在乐队指挥或队长手中,而
not skill or taste so much as the ownership of a large personal
通常把持这种职位的资格不是技巧或鉴赏
library of musical pieces. Since the conductor seldom saw the
品味,而是拥有一个大的音乐作品的个人
films until the night before they were to be shown (if indeed, the
收藏。因为直到电影上映的前一天晚上乐
conductor
was
lucky
enough
to
see
them
then),
the
musical
队指挥才能看到影片
(
如果这个指挥真正有
arrangement was normally improvised in the greatest hurry. To
幸能够看到影片的话
)
,音乐安排通常是在
help meet this difficulty, film distributing companies started the
非常匆忙的情况下临场进行的。为了解决
practice of publishing suggestions for musical accompaniments.
以上的困难,电影发行公司开办了为音乐
In
1909, for example, the Edison Company began issuing with
伴奏印制提示单的业务。
例如
1909
年爱迪
their films such indications of mood as
生公司开始将一些诸如
喜悦的



悲伤的


The
suggestions
became
more
explicit,
and
so
emerged
the

活泼的

之类表明影片情调特征的提示与
musical
cue sheet
containing
indications
of
mood,
the
titles
of
影片一起发行。这些提示逐渐变得更加具
suitable pieces of music, and precise directions to show where
体,并且出现了包括影片情调说明、适用
one piece led into the next. Certain films had music especially
乐曲名称和乐曲转换点等内容的配乐说明
composed
for
them.
The
most
famous
of
these
early
special
单。某些影片拥有专门为其创作的音乐。
scores was that composed and arranged for D. W. Griffith's film
这些早期特创乐谱中最著名的便是为
D.W.
Birth of a Nation, which was released in 1915.
格雷夫斯
1915
年上 映的影片
《一个国家的
诞生》所创作的音乐。

26 International Business and Cross-cultural Communication
国际商业和跨文化交流

The increase in international business and in foreign investment
国际贸易和海外投资的增加产生
has
created
a
need
for
executives
with
knowledge
of
foreign
了对具有外语知识和跨文化交流技巧
languages
and
skills
in
cross-cultural
communication.
Americans,
的经理的需求。然而,美国人在这两
however,
have
not
been
well
trained
in
either
area
and,
方面未得到良好的训练,因此没有在
consequently,
have
not
enjoyed
the
same
level
of
success
in
国际谈判中象他们的外国对手一样成
negotiation
in
an
international
arena
as
have
their
foreign
功。谈判是为了达成协议而反复交流
counterparts. Negotiating is the process of communicating back and
的过程。它包括说服和妥协。但是为
forth
for
the
purpose
of
reaching
an
agreement.
It
involves
了去进行说服和妥协,谈判者必须懂
persuasion and compromise, but in order to participate in either one,
得在谈判的文化中怎样说服人和怎样
the
negotiators
must
understand
the
ways
in
which
people
are
达成妥协。
在国外的国际商务谈判中,
persuaded and how compromise is reached within the culture of the
美国人被视为富有和不带个人情感。
negotiation.
In
many
international
business
negotiations
abroad,
在外国谈判者看来,似乎美国人代表
Americans
are
perceived
as
wealthy
and
impersonal.
It
often
着一个庞大的拥有数百万资财的大企
20

appears
to
the
foreign
negotiator
that
the
American
represents
a
业,不用进一步地讨价还价就能出得
large multi-million-dollar corporation that can afford to pay the price
起价钱。美国谈判者的角色变成了一
without bargaining further. The American negotiator's role becomes
个没有个人感情的信息及现金的供应
that of an impersonal purveyor of information and cash. In studies of
者。
对在国外的美国谈判者的研究中,
American negotiators abroad, several traits have been identified that
我们找出了损害谈判者能力的几个特
may serve to confirm this stereotypical perception, while undermining
点,或许证实这个已成定式的看法。
the
negotiator's
position.
Two
traits
in
particular
that
cause
尤其引起跨文化误解的两个特点是美
cross-cultural
misunderstanding
are
directness
and
impatience
on
国谈判者的直截了当和缺乏耐心。此
the
part
of
the
American
negotiator.
Furthermore,
American
外,美国谈判者经常坚持实现短期目
negotiators
often
insist
on
realizing
short-term
goals.
Foreign
标,而外国的谈判者会珍视建立谈判
negotiators,
on
the
other
hand,
may
value
the
relationship
者之间的联系并愿意为长期利益投入
established between negotiators and may be willing to invest time in
时间。为了巩固这种联系,他们会选
it for long-term benefits. In order to solidify the relationship, they may
择非直接的交流而不计较投入用于了
opt
for
indirect
interactions
without
regard
for
the
time
involved
in
解对方的时间。明显地,价值观的不
getting
to
know
the
other
negotiator.
Clearly,
perceptions
and
同和理解上的差异影响了谈判的结果
differences
in
values
affect
the
outcomes
of
negotiations
and
the
和谈判者的成功与否。美国人要在国
success of negotiators. For Americans to play a more effective role in
际商务谈判中扮演更为有效的角色,
international business negotiations, they must put forth more effort to
他们就必须投入更多的努力提高跨文
improve cross-cultural understanding.
27 Scientific Theories
科学理论

In science, a theory is a reasonable explanation of observed
在科学中,理论是对所观察到的相关
events
that
are
related.
A
theory
often
involves
an
imaginary
事件的合理解释。理论通常包含一个虚构
model
that
helps
scientists
picture
the
way
an
observed
event
的模型,这个模型帮助科学家构想所观察
could be produced. A good example of this is found in the kinetic
到的事件是如何发生的。分子运动理论便
molecular theory, in which gases are pictured as being made up
是我们能找到的一个很好的例子。在这个
of
many
small
particles
that
are
in
constant
motion.
A
useful
理论中,气体被描绘成由许多不断运动的
theory,
in
addition
to
explaining
past
observations,
helps
to
小颗粒组成。一个有用的理论,除了能够
predict events that have not as yet been observed. After a theory
解释过去的观测,还有助于预测那些未被
has
been
publicized,
scientists
design
experiments
to
test
the
观测到的事件。一个理论公开后,科学家
theory.
If
observations
confirm
the
scientists'
predictions,
the
们设计实验来检验这个理论。如果观察证
theory
is
supported.
If
observations
do
not
confirm
the
实了科学家的预言,这个理论则得到了验
predictions, the scientists must search further. There may be a
证。如果观察不能证实科学家的预言,科
fault in the experiment, or the theory may have to be revised or
学家就必须进一步的研究。或许是实验存
rejected. Science involves imagination
and creative thinking as
在错误,或许是这个理论必须被修改或抛
well as collecting information and performing experiments. Facts
弃。科学家除了收集信息和操作实验外还
by
themselves
are
not
science.
As
the
mathematician
Jules
需要想象能力和创
/
造性思维。
事实本身并
Henri Poincare said,
不是科学。
正如数学家乔斯·亨利·波恩克尔
built
with
bricks,
but
a
collection
of
facts
cannot
be
called
所说:

科学建立在事实之上,
就像房子用
science any more than a pile of bricks can be called a house.
砖砌成一样。但事实的收集不能被称作科
化的理解力。

21

Most scientists
start
an
investigation
by
finding
out
what
other
学,就像一堆砖不能被叫作房子一样。


scientists have learned about a particular problem. After known
数科学家通过找出别的科学家在一个特定
facts have been gathered, the scientist comes to the part of the
问题上的所知来开始研究。在收集了已知
investigation
that
requires
considerable
imagination.
Possible
事实之后,科学家开始了研究中需要相当
solutions
to
the
problem
are
formulated.
These
possible
想像力的部分。他们尔后拟订对这个问题
solutions
are
called
hypotheses.
In
a
way,
any
hypothesis
is a
的可行的解决方法。这些可行的解决方式
leap into the unknown. It extends the scientist's thinking beyond
被称为假设。在某种意义上,任何假设都
the
known
facts.
The
scientist
plans
experiments,
performs
是向未知的跳跃。它使科学家的思维超越
calculations,
and
makes
observations
to
test
hypotheses.
已知事实。科学家计划实验、计算、观测
Without
hypothesis,
further
investigation
lacks
purpose
and
以检验假定。若没有假设,进一步的研究
direction.
When
hypotheses
are
confirmed,
they
are
便缺乏目的和方向。当假设被证实了,就
incorporated into theories.
28 Changing Roles of Public Education
公共教育的角色变化

One of the most important social developments that helped
一项重要的、
有可能促使人们对公共教
to
make
possible
a
shift
in
thinking
about
the
role
of
public
育的角色的看法发生转变的社会发展是本
education
was
the
effect
of
the
baby
boom
of
the
1950's
and
世纪五六十年代的生育高峰对学校的影响。
1960's
on
the
schools.
In
the
1920's,
but
especially
in
the

20
年代,尤其 是在
30
年代后的大萧条
Depression
conditions
of
the
1930's,
the
United
States
中,美国经历了一次出生率的下降
--1920
experienced
a
declining
birth
rate
--
every
thousand
women
年每千名年龄在
15
岁至
45
岁的妇女生下
aged fifteen to forty-four gave birth to about 118 live children in
大约
118
个存活婴儿,
1930
89.2
个,
1920

89. 2
in 1930

75. 8 in 1936, and 80 in
1940. With the
1936

75.8
个,
1940
年< br>80
个。随着二
growing
prosperity
brought
on
by
the
Second
World
War
and
战带来的持续繁荣以及随之而来的经济增
the economic boom that followed it young people married and
长,
年轻人比大萧条中的同龄人更早地结婚
established
households
earlier
and
began
to
raise
larger
成家,而且比前辈养育更大的家庭。
1946
families
than
had
their
predecessors
during
the
Depression.
年出生率上升到
102%
1950
年达
106%

Birth
rates
rose
to
102
per
thousand
in
1946,
106.
2
in
1950,
1955
年达
118%
。对于生育高峰,经济有
and
118
in
1955.
Although
economics
was
probably
the
most
可能是最重要的决定因素,
但它并不是唯一
important determinant, it is not the only explanation for the baby
的解释。
不断受到重视的家庭观念也有助于
boom. The increased value placed on the idea of the family also
解释出生率的上升。到
40
年代中期为止,
helps
to
explain
this
rise
in
birth
rates.
The
baby
boomers
这些生育高峰出生的孩子们开始源源不断
began
streaming
into
the
first
grade
by
the
mid
1940's
and
地进入小学一年级。
到了
1950
年,
就形成
became
a
flood
by
1950.
The
public
school
system
suddenly
了一股洪流。
公共教育系统突然感到不堪重
found itself overtaxed. While the number of schoolchildren rose
负了。
由于战时和战后的状况,
使得学龄儿
because
of
wartime
and
postwar
conditions,
these
same
童人数增加,
这些状况使得学校面对这股洪
conditions
made
the
schools
even
less
prepared
to
cope
with
流更加措手不及。战时经济意味着在
1940
the
flood.
The
wartime
economy meant
that
few
new
schools
年到
1950
年间几乎没有建立新学校。
而且,
were
built
between
1940
and
1945.
Moreover,
during
the
war
在战时和随后的经济增长时期,
大量的教师
and in the boom times that followed, large numbers of teachers
离开岗位去别处从事报酬更为优厚的工作。
left
their
profession
for
better-paying
jobs
elsewhere
in
the
因此,
在五六十年代,
生育高峰冲击着陈旧
成为理论的一部分。

22

economy. Therefore in the 1950's and 1960's, the baby boom
而不完备的学校体系。这样一来,
30
年代
hit an antiquated and inadequate school system. Consequently,
以及
40
年代早期,

监护理论

就不再有意
the
义了。也就是说,
通过使
16
岁以上的年轻
made sense that is, keeping youths aged sixteen and older out
人留在学校不进入劳动力市场的做法再也
of the labor market by keeping them in school could no longer
不是教育机构的优先考虑了。
因为教育机构
be a high priority for an institution unable to find space and staff
不再能找到场地和教师来教育那些更小的
to
teach
younger
children
aged
five
to
sixteen.
With
the
baby
5-16
岁的孩子。随着生育高峰,教育者和
boom,
the
focus
of
educators
and
of
laymen
interested
in
圈外人士对教育的兴趣和焦点,
不可避免地
education inevitably turned toward the lower grades and back to
转向了更低的年级和基础的学术技能和学
basic academic skills and discipline. The system no longer had
科上。
这个系统不再有浓厚的兴趣给较年长
much interest in offering nontraditional, new, and extra services
的年轻人提供非传统的新式的和额外的服
to older youths.

29 Telecommuting
电子交通

Telecommuting
--
substituting
the
computer
for
the
trip
to
电子交通
--
用电脑取代上班的往返
--

the job -- has been hailed as a solution to all kinds of problems
为对各种各样的办公室工作问题的解决办
related to office work. For workers it promises freedom from the
法已受到了欢迎。对工作者来说,它承诺
office,
less
time
wasted
in
traffic,
and
help
with
child-care
不受办公室的约束,更少的时间浪费在交
conflicts.
For
management,
telecommuting
helps
keep
high
通上和有助于解决照看小孩的矛盾。对管
performers on board, minimizes tardiness and absenteeism by
理者来说,电子交通有助于挽留高效率的
eliminating
commutes,
allows
periods
of
solitude
for
工作者,通过省去办公室与家之间的来回
high-concentration tasks, and provides scheduling flexibility.
In
往返,大大减少工作拖拉和旷工,给予管
some
areas,
such
as
Southern
California
and
Seattle,
理者独处的时间来完成需要高度集中精神
Washington, local governments are encouraging companies to
的任务,为管理者提供灵活的时间安排。
start
telecommuting
programs
in
order
to
reduce
rush-hour
在一些地区,如南加利福尼亚和西雅图、
congestion
and
improve
air
quality.
But
these
benefits
do
not
华盛顿,地方政府鼓励公司开始电子交通
come
easily.
Making
a
telecommuting
program
work
requires
计划以减少交通高峰时的塞车和提高空气
careful
planning
and
an
understanding
of
the
differences
质量。但这些益处也来之不易。要使电子
between
telecommuting
realities
and
popular
images.
Many
交通成功需要仔细的计划并且理解电子交
workers are seduced by rosy illusions of life as a telecommuter.
通的现实状况和流行的想象之间的区别。
A
computer
programmer
from
New
York
City
moves
to
the
许多工作者被电子交通的美好幻想所迷
tranquil
Adirondack
Mountains
and
stays
in
contact
with
her
惑。一位电脑程序设计员从纽约市搬到了
office via computer. A manager comes in to his office three days
宁静的阿第伦达克山,用电脑保持与她办
a week and works at home the other two. An accountant stays
公室之间的联系。一位经理一周三天到办
home
to
care
for
her
sick
child;
she
hooks
up
her
telephone
公室,其他两天在家工作;一位会计师在
modem connections and does office work between calls to the
家照顾她生病的孩子,接通电话调制解调
doctor.
These
are
powerful
images,
but
they
are
a
limited
器的接头,在同医生通话之余完成办公室
reflection of reality. Telecommuting workers soon learn that it is
工作。这些是很有震撼力的情景,但也是
almost impossible to concentrate on work and care for a young
对现实有限的反映。电子交通者很快发现
务。

23

child
at
the
same
time.
Before
a
certain
age,
young
children
在同一时间专注工作和照看小孩几乎是不
cannot recognize, much less respect, the necessary boundaries
可能的。在某个年龄之前,小孩子不可能
between work and family. Additional child support is necessary
意识到,更不可能尊重工作与家庭之间的
if
the
parent
is
to
get
any
work
done.
Management
too
must
界限。如果家长要完成工作,就必须另外
separate the myth from the reality. Although the media has paid
照看小孩。管理阶层必须把现实同神话分
a great deal of attention to telecommuting in most cases it is the
开。虽然传媒对电子交通投入了极大的关
employee's
situation,
not
the
availability
of
technology
that
注,但在很大程度上,是员工的实际情况
precipitates
a
telecommuting
arrangement.
That
is
partly
why,
而不是技术的可能性促成电子交通的安
despite
the
widespread
press
coverage,
the
number
of
排。这就是为什么尽管有广泛的报导,具
companies
with
work-at-home
programs
or
policy
guidelines
有在家工作项目或行动纲领的公司数目依
remains small.

30 The Origin of Refrigerators
冰箱的由来

By the mid- nineteenth century, the term
直到
19
世纪中期,< br>
冰箱

这个名词
the American language, but ice was still only beginning
to affect
才进入了美国语言,
但冰仅仅只是开始影
the
diet
of
ordinary
citizens
in
the
United
States.
The
ice
trade
响美国普通市民的饮食。
冰的买卖随着城
grew with the growth of cities. Ice was used in hotels, taverns, and
市的发展而发展。冰被用在旅馆、酒馆、
hospitals, and by some forward-looking city dealers in fresh meat,
医院以及被一些有眼光的城市商人用于
fresh fish, and butter. After the Civil War (1861-1865), as ice was
肉、鱼和黄油的保鲜。内战
(1861-1865)
used to refrigerate freight cars, it also came into household use.
之后,
冰被用于冷藏货车,
同时也进入了
Even before 1880, half the ice sold in New York, Philadelphia, and
民用。甚至在
1880
年前,半数在纽约、
Baltimore, and one-third of that sold in Boston and Chicago, went
费城和巴尔的摩销售的冰,
三分之一在波
to families for their own use. This had become possible because a
士顿和芝加哥销售的冰进入家庭使用,

new
household
convenience,
the
icebox,
a
precursor
of
the
为一种新的家庭设备,
冰箱,
即现代冰箱
modern
refrigerator,
had
been
invented.
Making
an
efficient
的前身,
被发明了。
制造一台有效率的冰
icebox
was
not
as
easy
as we might
now
suppose.
In
the
early
箱不像我们想象的那么简单。
19
世纪早
nineteenth
century,
the knowledge
of
the
physics
of
heat,
which
期,
关于对冷藏科学至关重要的热物理知
was essential to a science of refrigeration, was rudimentary. The
识是很浅陋的。
认为最好的冰箱应该防止
commonsense notion that the best icebox was one that prevented
冰的融化这样一个普遍的观点显然是错
the ice from melting was of course mistaken, for it was the melting
误的,因为正是冰的融化起了制冷作用。
of the ice that performed the cooling. Nevertheless, early efforts to
早期为节省冰的努力,
包括用毯子把冰包
economize ice included wrapping the ice in
blankets, which kept
起来,
使得冰不能发挥它的作用。
直到近
the ice from doing its job. Not until near the end of the nineteenth
19
世纪末,发明家们才成功地找到有效
century
did
inventors
achieve
the
delicate
balance
of
insulation
率的冰箱所需要的精确的隔热和循环的
and
circulation
needed
for
an
efficient
icebox.
But
as
early
as
精确平衡。但早在
1803
年,一位有发明
1803,
an
ingenious
Maryland
farmer,
Thomas
Moore,
had
been
天才的马里兰农场主,托马斯·莫尔,找
on the right track. He owned a farm about twenty miles outside the
到了正确方法。
他拥有一个农场,
离华盛
city of Washington, for which the village of Georgetown was the
顿约
20
英里,那里的乔治镇村庄是集市
market
center.
When
he
used
an
icebox
of
his
own
design
to
中心。
当他用自己设计的冰箱运送黄油去
transport
his
butter
to
market,
he
found
that
customers
would
市场时,
他发现顾客们会走过装在竞争者
然很少的部分原因。

24

pass up the rapidly melting stuff in the tubs of his competitors to
桶里那些迅速融化的黄油而给他比市价
pay
a
premium
price
for
his
butter,
still
fresh
and
hard
in
neat,
更高的价格买他仍然新鲜坚硬,
整齐地切
one-pound bricks. One advantage of his icebox, more explained,
成一磅一块的黄油。
莫尔说他的冰箱的一
was that farmers would no longer have to travel to market at night
个好处是使得农民们不必在夜里上路去
in order to keep their produce cool.
31 British Columbia
英属哥伦比亚

British
Columbia
is
the
third
largest
Canadian
province,
英属哥伦比亚是加拿大的第三大省,
both in area and population.
It is nearly 1. 5 times as large as
无论是面积还是人口都是如此。它几乎是
Texas, and extends 800 miles (1,280km) north from the United
德克萨斯的
1.5
倍,从美国边境一直向北
States
border.
It
includes
Canada's
entire
west
coast
and
the
延伸了
800
英里
(1

280
公里
)
。 它包括了
islands
just
off
the
coast.
Most
of
British
Columbia
is
加拿大整个西海岸及附近岛屿。大部分英
mountainous, with long rugged ranges running north and south.
属哥伦比亚多山峦。绵长而粗犷的山脉贯
Even
the
coastal
islands
are
the
remains
of
a mountain
range
通南北。甚至那些沿海的岛屿都是那些存
that existed thousands of years ago. During the last Ice Age, this
在于千万年前的山脉的遗迹。在上一个冰
range was scoured by glaciers until most of it was beneath the
河时期,这些山脉被冰河冲刷侵蚀,直到
sea. Its peaks now show as islands scattered along the coast.
大部分山脉被淹没在海中。它们的峰顶显
The
southwestern
coastal
region
has
a
humid
mild
marine
现为沿着海岸散布的岛屿。西南海岸地区
climate. Sea winds that
blow inland from the west are warmed
有着潮湿温和的海洋性气候。从太平洋来
by a current of warm water that flows through the Pacific Ocean.
的温暖的洋流使得从西吹过内陆的海风变
As
a
result,
winter
temperatures
average
above
freezing
and
得温暖。因此这儿冬天平均气温在零上而
summers
are
mild.
These
warm
western
winds
also
carry
且夏天也不会酷热。这些温暖的西风同样
moisture from the ocean. Inland from the coast, the winds from
也从海洋带来了湿气。来自太平洋的、从
the Pacific meet the mountain barriers of the coastal ranges and
海岸向内陆的风遇到海岸山脉和落基山脉
the Rocky Mountains. As they rise to cross the mountains, the
这些山脉屏障。当气流升高跨越这些山脉
winds
are cooled,
and
their
moisture
begins
to
fall
as
rain.
On
时,风的温度就降低了,风中的水分形成
some of the western slopes almost 200 inches (500cm) of rain
降雨。在一些朝西山坡区域每年大约有
fall
each
year.
More
than
half
of
British
Columbia
is
heavily
200
英寸
( 500
厘米
)
的降水。
大部分英属哥
forested. On mountain slopes that receive plentiful rainfall, huge
伦比亚密布着森林。
在有充足降水的斜坡,
Douglas firs rise in towering columns. These forest giants often
巨大的道格拉斯枞树高耸入云。这些森林
grow to be as much as 300 feet (90m) tall, with diameters up to
巨 人常常长到高达
300
英尺
(90

)
,直径
10
feet
(3m).
More
lumber
is
produced
from
these
trees
than
粗达
10
英尺
(3

)
。这些树产出了比北美from
any
other
kind
of
tree
in
North
America.
Hemlock,
red
其他任何树都多的木材。铁杉、红香椿、
cedar, and balsam fir are among the other trees found in British
香脂冷杉枞都是发现于英属哥伦比亚的其
Columbia.
32 Botany
植物学

Botany,
the
study
of
plants,
occupies
a
peculiar
position
in
植物学,
即对植物的研究,
在人类知
the history of human knowledge. For many thousands of years it
识的历史中占据了特殊的地位。
这是人类
was the one field of awareness about which humans had anything
几千年来超越模糊的认知而真正有所了
more than the vaguest of insights. It
is impossible to know today
解的领域之一。
我们今天不可能知道新石
25
市场以保持他们产品的低温。

它树种。


just
what
our
Stone
Age
ancestors
knew
about
plants,
but
from
器时代的祖先们对植物到底了解多少,

what
we
can
observe
of
preindustrial
societies
that
still
exist
a
我们在至今仍存在的前工业化社会观察
detailed learning of plants and their properties must be extremely
到:
人类对植物及其特性的详细了解应该
ancient. This is logical. Plants are
the basis of the food pyramid
是非常古老的。
这是理所当然的。
植物是
for all living things even for other plants. They have always been
其他生物甚至其他植物食物金字塔的基
enormously important to the welfare of people not only for food,
础。
它们对人们的生活至关重要,
不仅在
but
also
for
clothing,
weapons,
tools,
dyes,
medicines,
shelter,
食物上,
而且在衣物、
武器、
工具、
染料、
and
a
great
many
other
purposes.
Tribes
living
today
in
the
药物、
住所和许许多多其他的用途上。

jungles of the Amazon recognize literally hundreds of plants and
今仍生活在亚马逊河丛林中的部落确实
know many properties of each. To them, botany, as such, has no
能够辨识几百种植物并知道每一种的许
name and is probably not even recognized as a special branch of
多特性。
对他们来说,
植物学没有专门的

all.
Unfortunately,
the
more
industrialized
we
名称,
甚至可能根本未被认为是一种专门
become the farther away we move from direct contact with plants,
知识。
不幸的是,
工业化的程度越高,

and
the
less
distinct
our
knowledge
of
botany
grows.
Yet
们距直接与植物接触就越远,
我们的植物
everyone
comes
unconsciously
on
an
amazing
amount
of

学知识的增加也就越微不足道。
然而每个
botanical knowledge, and few people will fail to recognize a rose,
人在不知不觉中拥有大量的植物学知识,
an apple, or an orchid. When our Neolithic ancestors, living in the
很少有人认不出玫瑰、
苹果或兰花。
大约
Middle
East
about
10,
000
years
ago,
discovered
that
certain
一万年前居住在中东的新时代的祖先们
grasses
could
be
harvested
and
their
seeds
planted
for
richer
发现某些草能被收获,
它们的种子下一季
yields the next season the first great step in a new association of
耕种会收获更多时,
人类就迈出了人和植
plants and humans was taken. Grains were discovered and from
物之间的新关系第一大步。谷子被发现
them flowed the marvel of agriculture: cultivated crops. From then
后,
农业的奇迹从此诞生:
这就是可栽培
on, humans would increasingly take their living from the controlled
的谷物。
从那时起,
人类越来越依赖少数
production of
a few plants, rather than getting
a little
here and a
可控制的作物生存,
而不再是从众多的野
little
there
from
many
varieties
that
grew
wild
-
and
the
生种类中这里获取一点,那里获取一点。
accumulated
knowledge
of
tens
of
thousands
of
years
of
这样在千万年中对于野生植物的经验和
experience
and
intimacy
with
plants
in
the
wild
would
begin
to
密切联系中积累起来的知识就开始消失
fade away.
33 Plankton
浮游生物

Scattered through the seas of the world are billions of tons
数十亿吨的被称为

浮游生物

的小动
of
small
plants
and
animals
called
plankton.
Most
of
these
物、植物散布在世界的海洋中。这些小的
plants
and
animals
are
too
small
for
the
human
eye
to
see.
动、植物大多太小而难以被人眼看到。它
They drift about
lazily with the currents, providing a basic food
们随波逐流,为许多较大的动物提供了基
for
many
larger
animals.
Plankton
has
been
described
as
the
本的食物。浮游生物曾被描述为生长在大
equivalent of the grasses that grow on

the dry land continents,
陆陆地上的各种草类的海洋对应物。这种
and
the
comparison
is
an
appropriate
one.
In
potential
food
比喻是恰当的。然而就潜在的食物价值而
value, however, plankton far outweighs that of the land grasses.
言,浮游生物远胜于草类。一位科学家曾
One
scientist
has
estimated
that
while
grasses
of
the
world
经估计,世界上的草类每年生产大约
490
produce
about
49
billion
tons
of
valuable
carbohydrates
each
亿吨有用的碳水化合物,而海洋里的浮游
了。

26

year,
the
sea's
plankton
generates
more
than
twice
as much.
生物每年生产的碳水化合物多于此数的两
Despite its enormous food potential, little effect was made until
倍。尽管浮游生物具备巨大的食物潜能,
recently
to
farm
plankton
as
we
farm
grasses
on
land.
Now
但直到最近人们还很少象种植草类那样付
marine
scientists
have
at
last
begun
to
study
this
possibility,
出努力养殖浮游生物。现在,海洋科学家
especially as the sea's resources loom even more important as
们至少已开始研究这种可能性。全球人口
a means of feeding an expanding world population. No one yet
不断扩张,海洋资源作为食品的重要性日
has
seriously
suggested
that

may
soon
益突出。现在还没有人认真说过

浮游生物
become
popular
around
the
world.
As
a
possible
farmed
汉堡

会很快在世界上流行起来。然而,作
supplementary
food
source,
however,
plankton
is
gaining
为一种可能养殖的补充性食物资源,浮游
considerable
interest
among
marine
scientists.
One
type
of
生物正引起了海洋科学家们相当大的兴
plankton that seems to have great harvest possibilities is a tiny
趣。一种似乎具有很大收获可能性的微小
shrimplike creature called krill. Growing to two or three inches
的虾状浮游生物被称为鳞虾。
鳞虾长至
2

long,
krill
provide
the
major
food
for
the
great
blue
whale,
the
3
英寸长时即成为地球上曾居住过的最大
largest animal ever inhabit the Earth. Realizing that this whale
动物
--
蓝鲸的主要食物。
成熟的蓝鲸可以达
may
grow
to100
feet
and
weigh
150
tons
at
maturity,
it
is
not

100
英尺长,
150
吨重,所 以每头鲸每
surprising that each one devours more than one ton of krill daily.
天吞食
1
吨多的鳞虾一点也不让人吃惊。

34 Raising Oysters
饲养牡蛎

In the past oysters were raised in much the same way as
过去人们饲养牡蛎的方式很大程度上
dirt
farmers
raised
tomatoes
-
by
transplanting
them.
First,
类似于田地里的农夫种植蕃茄
--
通过移植
farmers
selected
the
oyster
bed,
cleared
the
bottom
of
old
来饲养它们。
首先,
农夫选好牡蛎苗床,

shells and other debris, then scattered clean shells about. Next,
除底部的旧壳和其它杂物,
然后四处撒播干
they

fertilized
oyster
eggs,
which
within
two
or
three
净的壳。
接着 ,
他们

栽种

已受精的牡蛎卵。
weeks hatched into larvae. The larvae drifted until they attached
这些卵在
2

3
周内会孵化成幼贝。
幼 贝一
themselves
to
the
clean
shells
on
the
bottom.
There
they
直漂流直到粘在苗床底部干净的壳上为止。
remained
and
in
time
grew
into
baby
oysters
called
seed
or
它们会呆在那儿并逐渐长成小牡蛎。
我们称
spat. The spat grew larger by drawing in seawater from which
之为种子或贝苗。
贝苗吸进海水中的微小生
they derived microscopic particles of food. Before long, farmers
物作为食物从而越长越大。
不久之后,
农夫
gathered the baby oysters, transplanted them in other waters to
将这些小牡蛎收集起来,
把它们移种进其他
speed up their growth, then transplanted them once more into
的水域加快其生长,
然后再次将它们移种进
another
body
of
water
to
fatten
them
up.
Until
recently
the
另外的水域以使其肥壮起来。
直到最近,

supply of wild oysters and those crudely farmed were more than
生的以及人工饲养的牡蛎完全能够满足人
enough
to
satisfy
people's
needs.
But
today
the
delectable
们的需要。
但是今天这种可口的海味已不再
seafood is no longer available in abundance. The

problem has
大量存在。
这个问题已经变得如此严重以至
become
so
serious
that
some
oyster
beds
have
vanished
于一些牡蛎苗床已完全消失。
幸运的是,

entirely.
Fortunately,
as
far
back
as
the
early
1900's
marine

20
世纪初期海洋生物学家们就意识到如
biologists realized that if new measures were not taken, oysters
果不采取新的措施,
牡蛎将会灭绝或至少会
would become extinct or at best a luxury food. So they set up
变为一种奢侈的食品。
因此他们建造了装备
well- equipped
hatcheries
and
went
to
work.
But
they
did
not
良好的孵卵场所并开始工作。
但是他们尚没
have the proper equipment or the skill to handle the eggs. They
有适当的装置或技术来处理牡蛎卵。
他们不
27

did not know when, what, and how to feed the larvae. And they
知道何时、
用什么以及如何喂养幼贝。
他们
knew little about the predators that attack and eat baby oysters
对捕食数百万幼小牡蛎的动物天敌也所知
by the millions. They failed, but they doggedly kept at it. Finally,
无几。
他们失败了,
但他们顽强地坚持了下
in the 1940's a significant breakthrough was made. The marine
来。终于,在
20
世纪
40
年代,一个重要
biologists
discovered
that
by
raising
the
temperature
of
the
的突破性的进展产生了。海洋生物学家发
water,
they
could
induce
oysters
to
spawn
not
only
in
the
现,
升高水温能够诱导牡蛎不仅在夏季也在
summer
but
also
in
the
fall,
winter,
and
spring.
Later
they
秋季、
冬季和春季里产卵。
后来他们发展了
developed a technique for feeding the larvae and rearing them
一项技术来喂养幼贝至其长成贝苗。
他们进
to
spat.
Going
still
further,
they
succeeded
in
breeding
new
一步成功地培养出了新的品种,
可以抵抗疾
strains that were resistant to diseases, grew faster and
larger,
病、
长得更快、
更大并且在不同的盐度和温
and flourished in water of different salinities and temperatures.
度的水中都能茁壮生长。
此外,
这些培殖出
In addition, the cultivated oysters tasted better!
35 Oil Refining
炼油

An important new industry, oil refining, grew after the
一种重要的新兴工业
--
炼油业在国内战争后
Civil
War.
Crude
oil,
or
petroleum
--
a
dark,
thick
ooze
成长起来。未加工的石油,或原油
--
一种深色的
from the earth --
had been known for
hundreds of years,
地下的稠浆
--
数百年来一直为大众所知,但是人
but
little
use
had
ever
been
made
of
it.
In
the
1850's
们却很少使用过它。在十九世纪五十年代,
萨缪
Samuel M. Kier, a manufacturer in western Pennsylvania,
尔·
M< br>·科尔,
宾西法尼亚西部的一位制造商,
开始
began collecting the oil from local seepages and refining it
从当地的溢出物中收集石油并将它炼成煤油。与
into
kerosene.
Refining,
like
smelting,
is
a
process
of
冶炼矿石一样,
石油提炼是一个从未加工的原料
removing
impurities
from
a
raw
material.
Kerosene
was
中除去杂质的过程。煤油被用来点灯。它是鲸油
used to light lamps. It was a cheap substitute for whale oil,
的一种便宜的替代品,
而鲸油正变得越来越难以
which
was
becoming
harder
to
get.
Soon
there
was
a
获得。不久就产生了对煤油的大量需求。人们开
large
demand
for
kerosene.
People
began
to
search
for
始寻找新的石油供应。第一口油井为
E
·
L
·瑞克,
new supplies of petroleum. The first oil well was drilled by
一个退休的火车检票员所钻得。
1859
年他开始
E. L. Drake, a retired railroad conductor. In 1859 he began
在宾西法尼亚的泰特斯维尔钻井。整个的这项冒
drilling
in
Titusville,
Pennsylvania.
The
whole
venture
险事业看起来是如此不现实和愚蠢以致旁观者
seemed so impractical and foolish that onlookers called it











(





Folly
But
when
he
had
drilled
down
about
70
Drake'sFolly,drake
在这里意含双关,即指瑞克
feet (21 meters), Drake struck oil. His well began to yield
的名字,
又指该词的本义即鸭子。
)
但当瑞克往下
20
barrels
of
crude
oil
a
day.
News
of
Drake's
success < br>钻至
70
英尺
(21

)
的时候,他发现了石油。他
brought oil prospectors to the scene. By the early 1860's
的油井从此每天生产
20
桶原油。瑞克成功的消
these
wildcatters
were
drilling
for

gold
all
over
息将石油勘探者们吸引到现场。截止到
19
世纪
western
Pennsylvania.
The
boom
rivaled
the
California
60
年代早期,
这些冒险者为寻找

黑色的金子


gold
rush
of
1848
in
its
excitement
and
Wild
West
探遍了整个宾西法尼亚西部。
这项繁荣的事业在
atmosphere.
And
it
brought
far
more
wealth
to
the
刺激性和粗犷的西部气氛上可与
1848
年的加州
prospectors than any gold rush. Crude oil could be refined
淘金热相媲美,
而且它为勘探者带来了远超过淘
into many products. For some years kerosene continued
金潮的财富。原油能被提炼成许多产品。多年以
to be the principal one.
It was sold in grocery stores and
来煤油一直是主要的一种产品。它在杂货店中出
的牡蛎口感更佳
!
28

door-to-door.
In the 1880's refiners learned how to make
售由人挨户推销。
19
世纪八十九十年代炼油者们
other
petroleum
products
such
as waxes
and
lubricating
懂得了生产其它石油产品,如蜡和润滑油。
那时
oils.
Petroleum
was
not
then
used
to
make
gasoline
or
石油还没有被用来制造汽油或采暖装置用油。

heating oil.
36 Plate Tectonics and Sea-floor Spreading
板块结构与海床扩展

The
theory
of
plate
tectonics
describes
the
motions
of
the
板块结构理论描述岩石圈的运动。
lithosphere,
the
comparatively
rigid
outer
layer
of
the
Earth
that
岩石圈是相对坚硬的地球外层,包括全
includes
all
the
crust
and
part
of
the
underlying
mantle.
The
部地壳和部分地幔。岩石圈被划分为几
lithosphere is divided into a few dozen plates of various sizes and
十个大小不同形状各异的板块,一般而
shapes,
in
general
the
plates
are
in
motion
with
respect
to
one
言这些板块都处于相对运动之中。一道
another.
A
mid- ocean
ridge
is
a
boundary
between
plates
where
中海脊是板块之间的边界,在那里新的
new
lithospheric
material
is
injected
from
belows.
As
the
plates
岩石圈的物质从下部注入。当板块从中
diverge from a mid-ocean ridge they slide on a more yielding layer
海脊脱离时,它们滑向在岩石圈基部较
at
the
base
of
the
lithosphere.
Since
the
size
of
the
Earth
is
易变形的地层上。因为地球的大小本质
essentially
constant,
new
lithosphere
can
be
created
at
the
上是不变的,只有同等数量的岩石圈物
mid-ocean ridges only if an equal amount of lithospheric material is
质在其它地方被吞没,新的岩石圈才能
consumed elsewhere. The site of this destruction is another kind of
生成。销毁旧岩石圈的地方形成另外一
plate
boundary:
a
subduction
zone.
There
one
plate
dives
under
种板块边界:
一块潜没的区域。
在这里,
the
edge
of
another
and
is
reincorporated
into
the
mantle.
Both
一块板块潜没到另一板块的边缘之下并
kinds
of
plate
boundary
are
associated
with
fault
systems,
结合入地幔之中。两种板块边界均与地
earthquakes
and
volcanism,
but
the
kinds
of
geologic
activity
层系统、地震以及火山活动有关,但在
observed
at
the
two
boundaries
are
quite
different.
The
idea
of
两种边界处观察到的诸般地质活动却迥
sea-floor spreading actually preceded the theory of plate tectonics.
然不同。海床扩展说实际上早于板块结
In its original version, in the early 1960's, it described the creation
构理论。

20
世纪
60
年代它的理论雏
and
destruction
of
the
ocean
floor,
but
it
did
not
specify
rigid
形中,描述了海底的生成和毁灭,但没
lithospheric
plates.
The
hypothesis
was
substantiated
soon
有详细介绍坚硬的岩石圈板块。这个假
afterward
by
the
discovery
that
periodic
reversals
of
the
Earth's
定不久之后为发现所证实。该发现表明
magnetic field are recorded in the oceanic crust. As magma rises
地球磁场周期性的逆转被记录在海洋地
under the mid-ocean ridge, ferromagnetic minerals in the magma
壳中。当岩浆从中海脊下涌起的时候,
become
magnetized
in
the
direction
of
the
geomagnetic
field.
岩浆中的磁铁矿物质按地磁场的方向被
When the magma cools and solidifies, the direction and the polarity
磁化。岩浆冷却并凝固下来后,地磁场
of
the
field
are
preserved
in
the
magnetized
volcanic
rock.
的方向和磁极被保留在磁化了的火山岩
Reversals
of
the
field
give
rise
to
a
series
of
magnetic
stripes
中。磁场的逆转形成一系列与断层轴线
running parallel to the axis of the rift. The oceanic crust thus serves
平行的条形磁区。这样海洋壳就扮演了
as
a
magnetic
tape
recording
of
the
history
of
the
geomagnetic
磁带的角色,记录下可以鉴定时间的地
field
that
can
be
dated
independently;
the
width
of
the
stripes
磁场的历史。条形磁区的宽度表明了海
indicates the rate of the sea-floor spreading.
37 Icebergs
冰山

Icebergs
are
among
nature's
most spectacular
creations,
冰山是大自然最壮观的创造之一,
但大
29
底扩展的速度。


and
yet
most
people
have
never
seen
one.
A
vague
air
of
多数人却从未看到过冰山,
一种朦胧神秘的
mystery envelops them. They come into being -- somewhere --
气氛笼罩着它们。
冰山形成于久远的、
寒冷
in faraway, frigid waters, amid thunderous noise and splashing
的水体中,
而且伴随着雷声轰鸣般的嘈杂和
turbulence,
which
in
most
case
no
one
hears
or
sees.
They
水花汹涌的风暴,
但却无人耳闻目睹。
冰山
exist
only
a
short
time
and
then
slowly
waste
away
just
as
仅存在短短的一段时间就慢慢地悄无声息
unnoticed.
Objects
of sheerest
beauty
they
have
been
called.
地融化掉。
冰山具有最纯粹的美,
人们如是
Appearing
in
an
endless
variety
of
shapes,
they
may
be
说。冰山呈现出千姿百态,可能白得耀眼,
dazzlingly white, or they may be glassy blue, green or purple,
或者是闪耀着蓝色、
绿色或紫色的玻璃般的
tinted
faintly
or
in
darker
hues.
They
are
graceful,
stately,
光芒,
或浓或淡。
它们在平静的阳光照耀的
inspiring
--
in
calm,
sunlight
seas.
But
they
are
also
called
海水中显得优雅堂皇,
令人浮想联翩。
但是
frightening and
dangerous, and that they are -- in the night, in
人们亦把冰山称为恐怖的和危险的。
它们的
the fog, and in storms. Even in clear weather one is wise to stay
确如此
--
在夜间,雾天和风暴肆虐时。即便
a
safe
distance
away
from
them.
Most
of
their
bulk
is
hidden
是在晴朗的天气里,
与它们保持一段安全距
below the water, so their underwater
parts may extend out far
离也是明智的。
冰山的大部分体积稳藏于水
beyond the visible top.

Also, they may roll over unexpectedly,
下,
因此其水下部分的伸展远远超过可见的
churning the waters around them. Icebergs are parts of glaciers
顶部。
冰山也可能出人意料地翻滚,
剧烈地
that break off, drift into the water, float about awhile, and finally
搅动周围的水体。
冰山是冰川的一部分,

melt.
Icebergs
afloat
today
are
made
of snowflakes
that
have
冰川断裂漂流进水中,
一段时间后融化。

fallen over long ages of time. They embody snows that drifted
天的冰山由多年前降落的雪花形成。
它们的
down hundreds, or many thousands, or in some cases maybe a
体内是数百年,
或数千年,
有时甚至是数百
million years ago. The snows fell in
polar regions and on cold
万年前的降雪。
这些雪花落在极地或寒冷的
mountains, where they melted only a little or
not at all, and so
山上,
仅有少量融化或根本不融化,
这样经
collected to great depths over the years and centuries. As each
过许多年或许多世纪后积累了巨大的深度。
year's snow accumulation lay on the surface, evaporation and
由于每年的雪花积累在表面之上,
蒸发和融
melting
caused
the
snowflakes
slowly
to
lose
their
feathery
化使得雪花慢慢失去其羽状尖端而变成微
points
and
become
tiny
grains
of
ice.
When
new snow
fell
on
小的冰粒。当新的雪花降落到旧的表面上,
top of the
old,
it too turned to icy grains. So blankets of snow
也变成了冰粒。
因而雪花覆盖层和冰粒层层
and ice grains mounted layer upon layer and were of such great
堆积起来直到如此之大的厚度以致较上层
thickness
that
the
weight
of
the
upper
layers compressed
the
的重量压缩较下层。在时间和压力的作用
lower
ones.
With
time
and
pressure
from
above,
the
many
下,许多小冰粒结合到一起变成更大的晶
small
ice
grains
joined
and
changed
to
larger
crystals,
and
体,
最终较底层的晶体合并成庞大而坚固的
eventually the deeper crystals merged into a solid mass of ice.
冰块。

38 Topaz
黄水晶

Topaz is a hard, transparent mineral. It is a compound of
黄水晶是一种坚硬、透明的矿物质。它
aluminum,
silica,
and
fluorine.
Gem
topaz
is
valuable.
是铝、硅和氟的化合物。黄水晶宝石价值不
Jewelers call
this
variety
of
the
stone

topaz
The
菲。
珠宝商把这种石头称为

黄 玉


最出名的
best-known
precious
topaz
gems
range
in
color
from
rich
黄玉有各种颜色如深黄色、淡棕色、浅红色
yellow
to
light
brown
or
pinkish
red.
Topaz
is
one
of
the
等。黄水晶是最坚硬的宝石矿中的一种。在
hardest gem minerals. In the mineral table of hardness, it has
矿石硬度表上,它的硬度为
8
,这表明刀子
30

a rating of 8, which means that a knife cannot cut it, and that
不能割开它而它可在石英上划痕。金黄色的
topaz will scratch quartz. The golden variety of precious topaz
黄玉品种非常罕见。世界上大多数的黄水晶
is quite uncommon. Most of the world's topaz is white or blue.
是白色或蓝色的。这些白色或蓝色的黄水晶
The white and blue crystals of topaz are large, often weighing
晶体很大,常常有数千克拉重。由于这个原
thousands of carats. For this reason, the value of topaz does
因,黄水晶的价值不像钻石和许多其它宝石
not depend so much on its size as it does with diamonds and
那样主要依赖于其大小,重量翻一番价值即
many other precious stones, where the value increases about
上升约四倍。黄水晶的价值很大程度上取决
four times with each doubling of weight. The value of a topaz
于其品质,但颜色也很重要。举例来说,蓝
is largely determined by its quality. But color is also important:
色的黄水晶常需放射处理以加深和改善其颜
blue
topaz,
for
instance,
is
often
irradiated
to
deepen
and
色。蓝色的黄水晶常被作为海蓝宝石出售,
improve its color. Blue topaz is often sold as aquamarine and
许多种棕色石英被当作黄水晶广为贩卖。石
a variety of brown quartz is widely sold as topaz. The quartz is
英光亮度远小于黄水晶,矿藏储量也远较黄
much less brilliant and more plentiful than true topaz. Most of
水晶丰富。大多数石英是一种紫水晶,高温
it is a variety of amethyst: that heat has turned brown.
39 The Salinity of Ocean Waters
海水盐度

If the salinity of ocean waters is analyzed, it
is found to vary
如果我们分析海水的盐度,会发现
only slightly from place to place. Nevertheless, some of these small
地区间只有轻微的变化,然而有些小的
changes
are
important.
There
are
three
basic
processes
that
变化是重要的。导致海洋的盐度变化的
cause a change in oceanic salinity. One of these is the subtraction
基本过程有三个,其中之一是通过蒸发
of water from the ocean by means of evaporation - conversion of
的方式即把液态水转化为水蒸气来减少
liquid water to water vapor. In this manner the salinity is increased,
海洋中的水分。这样由于盐留了下来,
since
the
salts
stay
behind.
If
this
is
carried
to
the
extreme,
of
所以盐度增大。当然,如果这种方式走
course, white crystals of salt would be left behind. The opposite of
向极端,将会余下白色的盐晶体。与蒸
evaporation is precipitation, such as rain, by which water is added
发相反的是降水,如降雨,由此水被加
to the ocean. Here the ocean is being diluted so that the salinity is
入海中,海水被稀释,从而盐度降低。
decreased.
This
may
occur
in
areas
of
high
rainfall
or
in
coastal
这种情形会发生在大量降雨的地区,或
regions
where
rivers
flow
into
the
ocean.
Thus
salinity
may
be
江河入海岸处。因此,盐度通过蒸发减
increased by the subtraction of water by evaporation, or decreased
少水分而上升或通过降水或径流增加淡
by the addition of fresh water by precipitation or runoff. Normally, in
水成分而下降。一般来说,在阳光很强
tropical regions where the sun is very strong, the ocean salinity is
烈的热带地区,海水的盐度略高于世界
somewhat higher than it is in other parts of the world where there is
上其它没有热带那样多的蒸发的地区。
not as much evaporation. Similarly, in coastal regions where rivers
同理,在江河稀释海水的海岸地带,海
dilute
the
sea,
salinity
is
somewhat
lower
than
in
other
oceanic
水盐度略低于其它海区。第三个可以变
areas.
A
third
process
by
which
salinity
may
be
altered
is
更盐度的过程与海洋中冰的形成和融化
associated
with
the
formation
and
melting
of
sea
ice.
When
sea
有关。海水冻结时,溶于其中的物质被
water
is
frozen,
the
dissolved
materials
are
left
behind.
In
this
留了下来。这样,在新形成的海水冰面
manner,
sea water
directly
beneath
freshly
formed
sea
ice
has
a
的正下方的海水比在冰形成之前有更高
higher salinity than it did before the ice appeared. Of course, when
的盐度。当然,当冰融化的时候,会降
this ice melts, it will tend to decrease the salinity of the surrounding
低周围水中的盐度。在南极洲边缘的威
使其变为棕色。

31

-


-


-


-


-


-


-


-



本文更新与2021-01-24 02:52,由作者提供,不代表本网站立场,转载请注明出处:https://www.bjmy2z.cn/gaokao/558625.html

新东方背诵80篇(整理中英对照版)的相关文章