结论考研英语背诵50篇2完美打印版Word版

2021年1月24日发(作者：偏见英文)


26.
International
Business
and
Cross-cultural Communication

The increase in international business
and
in
foreign
investment
has
created
a
need for executives with knowledge of
foreign
languages
and
skills
in
cross-cultural
communication.
Americans, however, have not been well
trained
in
either
area
and,
consequently,
have
not
enjoyed
the
same
level
of
success
in
negotiation
in
an
international
arena
as
have
their
foreign counterparts.


Negotiating
is
the
process
of
communicating
back
and
forth
for
the
purpose
of
reaching
an
agreement.
It
involves
persuasion
and
compromise,
but
in order to participate in either one,
the
negotiators
must
understand
the
ways
in which people are persuaded and how
compromise
is
reached
within
the
culture
of the negotiation.


In
many
international
business
negotiations
abroad,
Americans
are
perceived
as
wealthy
and
impersonal.
It
often
appears
to
the
foreign
negotiator
that
the
American
represents
a
large
multi-million- dollar
corporation
that
can
afford
to
pay
the
price
without
bargaining
further.
The
American
negotiator’s role becomes that of an
impersonal purveyor of information and
cash.


In
studies
of
American
negotiators
abroad,
several
traits
have
been
identified
that
may
serve
to
confirm
this
stereotypical
perception,
while
undermining
the
negotiator’s
position.
Two
traits
in
particular
that
cause
cross-cultural
misunderstanding
are
directness
and
impatience
on
the
part
of
the American negotiator. Furthermore,
American
negotiators
often
insist
on
realizing
short-term
goals.
Foreign
negotiators,
on
the
other
hand,
may
value
the
relationship
established
between negotiators and may be willing
to
invest
time
in
it
for
long-term
benefits.
In
order
to
solidify
the
relationship,
they
may
opt
for
indirect
interactions
without
regard
for
the
time
involved in getting to know the other
negotiator.



27. Scientific Theories


In
science,
a
theory
is
a
reasonable
explanation
of
observed
events
that
are
related.
A
theory
often
involves
an
imaginary model that helps scientists
picture
the
way
an
observed
event
could
be produced. A good example of this is
found in the kinetic molecular theory,
in
which
gases
are
pictured
as
being
made
up of many small particles that are in
constant motion.


A
useful
theory,
in
addition
to
explaining past observations, helps to
predict
events
that
have
not
as
yet
been
observed.
After
a
theory
has
been
publicized,
scientists
design
experiments
to
test
the
theory.
If
observations confirm the scientist’s
predictions,
the
theory
is
supported.
If
observations
do
not
confirm
the
predictions,
the
scientists
must
search
further. There may be a fault in the
experiment,
or
the
theory
may
have
to
be
revised or rejected.


Science
involves
imagination
and
creative
thinking
as
well
as
collecting
information
and
performing
experiments.


Facts
by
themselves
are
not
science.
As
the mathematician Jules Henri Poincare
said,
“Science
is
built
with
facts
just
as a house is built with bricks, but a
collection
of
facts
cannot
be
called
science any more than a pile of bricks
can be called
a house.”




Most scientists start an investigation
by
finding
out
what
other
scientists
have
learned
about
a
particular
problem.
After known facts have been gathered,
the scientist comes to the part of the
investigation
that
requires
considerable
imagination.
Possible
their
predecessors
during
the
Depression.
Birth
rates
rose
to
102
per
thousand
in
1946,106.2
in
1950,
and
118
in
1955.
Although
economics
was
probably
the most important determinant, it is
not the only explanation for the baby
boom.
The
increased
value
placed
on
the
idea
of
the
family
also
helps
to
explain
this
rise
in
birth
rates.
The
baby
solutions
to
the
problem
are
formulated.
These
possible
solutions
are
called
hypotheses.


In a way, any hypothesis is a leap into
the
unknown.
It
extends
the
scientist’s
thinking
beyond
the
known
facts.
The
scientist plans experiments, performs
calculations,
and
makes
observations
to
test
hypotheses.
Without
hypothesis,
further
investigation
lacks
purpose
and
direction.
When
hypotheses
are
confirmed, they are incorporated into
theories.



ng Roles of Public Education


One
of
the
most
important
social
developments
that
helped
to
make
possible a shift in thinking about the
role
of
public
education
was
the
effect
of
the
baby
boom
of
the
1950's
and
1960's
on
the
schools.
In
the
1920's,
but
especially
in
the
Depression
conditions
of
the
1930's,
the
United
States
experienced a declining birth rate ---
every
thousand
women
aged
fifteen
to
forty-four
gave
birth
to
about
118
live
children in 1920, 89.2 in 1930, 75.8 in
1936, and 80 in 1940. With the growing
prosperity
brought
on
by
the
Second
World War
and
the
economic
boom
that
followed
it
young
people
married
and
established
households
earlier
and
began
to
raise
larger
families
than
had
boomers began streaming into the first
grade by the mid 1940's and became a
flood
by
1950.
The
public
school
system
suddenly found itself overtaxed. While
the
number
of
schoolchildren
rose
because
of
wartime
and
postwar
conditions, these same conditions made
the schools even less prepared to cope
with
the
food.
The
wartime
economy
meant
that
few
new
schools
were
built
between
1940
and
1945.
Moreover,
during
the
war
and
in the boom times that
followed,
large
numbers
of
teachers
left
their
profession
for
better-paying
jobs
elsewhere in the economy.


Therefore in the 1950’s and 1960’s,
the
baby
boom
hit
an
antiquated
and
inadequate
school
system.
Consequently,
the
“
custodial
rhetoric”
of
the
1930’s
and
early
1940’s
no
longer
made
sense
that
is,
keeping
youths
aged
sixteen
and
older
out
of
the
labor
market
by
keeping
them
in
school
could
no
longer
be a high priority for an institution
unable to find space and staff to teach
younger children aged five to sixteen.
With
the
baby
boom,
the
focus
of
educators and of laymen interested in
education inevitably turned toward the
lower
grades
and
back
to
basic
academic
skills
and
discipline.
The
system
no
longer
had
much
interest
in
offering
nontraditional,
new,
and
extra
services
to older youths.




29 Telecommuting


Telecommuting--
substituting
the
computer
for
the
trip
to
the
job
----has
been hailed as a solution to all kinds
These
are
powerful
images,
but
they
are
a
limited
reflection
of
reality.
Telecommuting
workers
soon
learn
that
it
is almost impossible to concentrate on
work and care for a young child at the
same time. Before a certain age, young
children
cannot
recognize,
much
less
of problems related to office work.


For
workers
it
promises
freedom
from
the
office,
less
time
wasted
in
traffic,
and
help
with
child-care
conflicts.
For
management,
telecommuting
helps
keep
high
performers
on
board,
minimizes
tardiness
and
absenteeism
by
eliminating
commutes,
allows
periods
of
solitude for high-concentration tasks,
and
provides
scheduling
flexibility.
In
some
areas,
such
as
Southern
California
and
Seattle,
Washington,
local
governments are encouraging companies
to
start
telecommuting
programs
in
order
to
reduce
rush-hour
congestion
and
improve air quality.


But these benefits do not come easily.
Making
a
telecommuting
program
work
requires
careful
planning
and
an
understanding
of
the
differences
between
telecommuting
realities
and
popular images.


Many
workers
are
seduced
by
rosy
illusions of life as a telecommuter. A
computer programmer from New York City
moves
to
the
tranquil
Adirondack
Mountains
and
stays
in
contact
with
her
office
via
computer.
A
manager
comes
in
to
his
office
three
days
a
week
and
works
at
home
the
other
two.
An
accountant
stays home to care for her sick child;
she
hooks
up
her
telephone
modern
connections
and
does
office
work
between
calls to the doctor.


respect,
the
necessary
boundaries
between
work
and
family.
Additional
child
support
is
necessary
if
the
parent
is to get any work done.


Management too must separate the myth
from
the
reality.
Although
the
media
has
paid
a
great
deal
of
attention
to
telecommuting in most cases it is the
employee’s
situation,
not
the
availability
of
technology
that
precipitates
a
telecommuting
arrangement.


That
is
partly
why,
despite
the
widespread
press
coverage,
the
number
of
companies
with
work- at-home
programs
or
policy guidelines remains small.



30 The origin of Refrigerators


By
the
mid- nineteenth
century,
the
term
“icebox”
had
entered
the
American
language,
but
ice
was
still
only
beginning
to
affect
the
diet
of
ordinary
citizens in the United States. The ice
trade
grew
with
the
growth
of
cities.
Ice
was
used
in
hotels,
taverns,
and
hospitals, and by some forward-looking
city
dealers
in
fresh
meat,
fresh
fish,
and
butter.
After
the
Civil
War(
1861-1865),as
ice
was
used
to
refrigerate freight cars, it also came
into
household
use.
Even
before
1880,half of the ice sold in New York,
Philadelphia,
and
Baltimore,
and
one-third of
that
sold
in
Boston and


Chicago,
went
to
families
for
their
own
use.
This
had
become
possible
because
a
new household convenience, the icebox,
a
precursor
of
the
modern
refrigerator,
had been invented.



Making an efficient icebox was not as
easy as we might now suppose. In the
early
nineteenth
century,
the
knowledge
of
the
physics
of
heat,
which
was
essential
to
a
science
of
refrigeration,
was
rudimentary.
The
commonsense
notion
that
the
best
icebox
was
one
that
prevented the ice from melting was of
miles(1,280km)
north
from
the
United
State
s
border.
It
includes
Canada’s
entire west coast and the islands just
off the coast.


Most
of
British
Columbia
is
mountainous,
with long rugged ranges running north
and
south.
Even
the
coastal
islands
are
the
remains
of a
mountain
range
that
course
mistaken,
for
it
was
the
melting
of the ice that performed the cooling.
Nevertheless,
early
efforts
to
economize ice included wrapping up the
ice
in
blankets,
which
kept
the
ice
from
doing
its
job.
Not
until
near
the
end
of
the
nineteenth
century
did
inventors
achieve
the
delicate
balance
of
insulation
and
circulation
needed
for
an
efficient icebox.


But
as
early
as
1803,
and
ingenious
Maryland
farmer,
Thomas
Moore,
had
been
on
the
right
track.
He
owned
a
farm
about
twenty
miles
outside
the
city
of
Washington,
for
which
the
village
of
Georgetown was the market center. When
he used an icebox of his own design to
transport
his
butter
to
market,
he
found
that
customers

would
pass
up
the
rapidly
melting
stuff
in
the
tubs
of
his
competitors to pay a premium price for
his
butter,
still
fresh
and
hard
in
neat,
one-pound bricks. One advantage of his
icebox,
Moore
explained,
was
that
farmers would no longer have to travel
to
market
at
night
in
order
to
keep
their
produce cool.



31 British Columbia


British Columbia is the third largest
Canadian
provinces,
both
in
area
and
population. It is nearly 1.5 times as
large
as
Texas,
and
extends
800
existed thousands of years ago. During
the
last
Ice
Age,
this
range
was
scoured
by
glaciers
until
most
of
it
was
beneath
the sea. Its peaks now show as islands
scattered along the coast.


The southwestern coastal region has a
humid
mild
marine
climate.
Sea
winds
that
blow
inland
from
the
west
are
warmed by a current of warm water that
flows through the Pacific Ocean. As a
result,
winter
temperatures
average
above
freezing
and
summers
are
mild.
These
warm
western
winds
also
carry
moisture from the ocean.


Inland
from
the
coast,
the
winds
from
the
Pacific meet the mountain barriers of
the
coastal
ranges
and

the
Rocky
Mountains.
As
they rise
to
cross the
mountains,
the
winds
are
cooled,
and
their moisture begins to fall as rain.
On
some
of
the
western
slopes
almost
200
inches (500cm) of rain fall each year.


More than half of British Columbia is
heavil


y
forested.
On
mountain
slopes
that
receive
plentiful
rainfall,
huge
Douglas firs rise in towering columns.
These forest giants often grow to be as
much
as
300
feet(90m)
tall,
with
diameters
up
to
10
feet(3m).
More
lumber
is produced from these trees than from
any
other
kind
of
tree
in
North
America.
Hemlock, red cedar, and balsam fir are
among the other trees found in British
Columbia.



32 Botany


Botany,
the
study
of
plants,
occupies
a
peculiar
position
in
the
history
of
human knowledge. For many thousands of
years it was the one field of awareness
about
which
humans
had
anything
more
than
the
vaguest
of
insights.
It
is
impossible to know today just what our
Stone Age ancestors knew about plants,
but
form
what
we
can
observe
of
pre-industrial
societies
that
still
exist
a
detailed
learning
of
plants
and
their
properties
must
be
extremely
ancient.
This
is
logical.
Plants
are
the
basis
of
the
food
pyramid
for
all
living
things
even
for
other
plants.
They
have
always
been
enormously
important
to
the
welfare
of
people
not
only
for
food,
but
also
for
clothing,
weapons,
tools,
dyes,
medicines,
shelter,
and
a
great
many
other purposes. Tribes living today in
the
jungles
of
the
Amazon
recognize
literally hundreds of plants and know
many
properties
of
each.
To
them,
botany,
as
such,
has
no
name
and
is
probably
not
even recognized as a special branch of
“ knowledge” at all.


Unfortunately, the more industrialized
we become the farther away we move from
direct
contact
with
plants,
and
the
less
distinct
our
knowledge
of
botany
grows.
Yet everyone comes unconsciously on an
amazing amount of botanical knowledge,
and few people will fail to recognize a
rose, an apple, or an orchid. When our
Neolithic
ancestors,
living
in
the
Middle
East
about
10,000
years
ago,
discovered
that
certain
grasses
could
be
harvested and their seeds planted for
richer
yields
the
next
season
the
first
great
step
in
a
new
association
of
plants
and
humans
was
taken.
Grains
were
discovered
and
from
them
flowed
the
marvel
of
agriculture:
cultivated
crops.
From
then
on,
humans
would
increasingly
take their living from the controlled
production
of
a
few
plants,
rather
than
getting
a
little
here
and
a
little
there
from
many
varieties
that
grew
wild-
and
the
accumulated
knowledge
of
tens
of
thousands
of
years
of
experience
and
intimacy with plants in the wild would
begin to fade away.



33
Plankton
浮
游
生
物
.
/
'plжηktэn;
`plжηktэn/


Scattered
through
the
seas
of
the
world
are
billions
of
tons
of
small
plants
and
animals called plankton. Most of these
plants
and
animals
are
too
small
for
the
human
eye
to
see.
They
drift
about
lazily
with
the
currents,
providing
a
basic
food for many larger animals.


Plankton
has
been
described
as
the
equivalent of the grasses that grow on
the
dry
land
continents,
and
the
comparison
is
an
appropriate
one.
In
potential
food
value,
however,
plankton
far
outweighs
that
of
the
land
grasses.
One scientist has estimated that while
grasses of the world produce about 49
billion tons of valuable carbohydrates


each
year,
the
sea’s
plankton
generates
more than twice as much.



oysters called seed or spat. The spat
Despite
its
enormous
food
potential,
little
effect
was
made
until
recently
to
farm
plankton
as
we
farm
grasses
on
land.
Now
marine
scientists
have
at
last
begun
to
study
this
possibility,
especially
as
the
sea’s
resources
loom
even
more
important
as
a
means
of
feeding
an
expanding world population.


No
one
yet
has
seriously
suggested
that
“ plankton
-
burgers” may soon become
popular
around
the
world.
As
a
possible
farmed
supplementary
food
source,
however,
plankton
is
gaining
considerable
interest
among
marine
scientists.


One type of plankton that seems to have
great harvest possibilities is a tiny
shrimp-like
creature
called
krill.
Growing
to two or
three
inches
long,
krill provides the major food for the
great
blue
whale,
the
largest
animal
to
ever inhabit the Earth. Realizing that
this
whale
may
grow
to
100
feet
and
weigh
150
tons
at
maturity,
it
is
not
surprising that each one devours more
than one ton of krill daily.



34 Raising Oysters


In the oysters were raised in much the
same
way
as
dirt
farmers
raised
tomatoes-
by
transplanting
them.
First,
farmers
selected
the
oyster
bed,
cleared
the
bottom
of
old
shells
and
other
debris,
then
scattered
clean
shells
about.
Next,
they
”planted”
fertilized
oyster
eggs,
which
within
two
or
three
weeks
hatched
into larvae. The larvae drifted until
they attached themselves to the clean
shells
on
the
bottom.
There
they
remained
and
in
time
grew
into
baby
grew
larger
by
drawing
in
seawater
from
which
they
derived
microscopic
particles
of
food.
Before
long,
farmers
gathered
the
baby
oysters,
transplanted
them
once
more
into
another
body
of
water
to fatten them up.


Until
recently
the
supply
of
wild
oysters and those crudely farmed were
more than enough to satisfy people’s
needs.
But
today
the
delectable
seafood
is
no
longer
available
in
abundance.
The
problem
has
become
so
serious
that
some
oyster beds have vanished entirely.


Fortunately, as far back as the early
1900’s
marine
biologists
realized
that
if
new
measures
were
not
taken,
oysters
would
become
extinct
or
at
best
a
luxury
food.
So
they
set
up
well-equipped
hatcheries
and
went
to
work.
But
they
did
not
have
the
proper equipment
or the
skill to handle the eggs. They did not
know when, what, and how to feed the
larvae. And they knew little about the
predators
that
attack
and
eat
baby
oysters by the millions. They failed,
but they doggedly kept at it. Finally,
in
the
1940’s
a
significant
breakthrough was made.


The
marine
biologists
discovered
that
by
raising the temperature of the water,
they could induce oysters to spawn not
only
in
the
summer
but
also
in
the
fall,
winter,
and
spring.
Later
they
developed a technique for feeding the
larvae and rearing them to spat. Going
still
further,
they
succeeded
in
breeding
new
strains
that
were
resistant
to
diseases,
grew
faster
and
larger,
and
flourished
in
water
of
different
salinities
and
temperatures.
In
addition,
the
cultivated
oysters
tasted


better!




Refining


An
important
new
industry,
oil
refining,
grew after the Civil war. Crude oil, or
petroleum
–

a
dark,
thick
ooze
from
the
earth
–
had been known for hundreds of
years,
but
little
use
had
ever
been
made
products.
For
some
years
kerosene
continued
to
be
the
principal
one.
It
was
sold
in
grocery
stores
and
door-to- door.
In the 1880’s refiners learned how to
make other petroleum products such as
waxes and lubricating oils. Petroleum
was not then used to make gasoline or
heating oil.


of it. In the 1850’s Samuel M. Kier, a
manufacturer in western Pennsylvania,
began
collecting
the
oil
from
local
seepages
and
refining
it
into
kerosene.
Refining,
like
smelting,
is
a
process
of
removing
impurities
from
a
raw
material.


Kerosene
was
used
to
light
lamps.
It
was
a
cheap
substitute
for
whale
oil,
which
was
becoming
harder
to get.
Soon
there
was
a
large
demand
for
kerosene.
People
began
to
search
for
new
supplies
of
petroleum.


The first oil well was drilled by E.L.
Drake,
a
retired
railroad
conductor.
In
1859 he began drilling in Titusville,
Pennsylvania. The whole venture seemed
so
impractical
and
foolish
that
onlookers
called
it
“
Drake’s
Folly”.
But when he had drilled down about 70
feet(21 meters), Drake struck oil. His
well began to yield 20 barrels of crude
oil a day.


News
of
Drake’s
success
brought
oil
prospectors to the scene. By the early
1860’s
these
wildcatters
were
drilling
for
“ black
gold” all
over
western
Pennsylvania.
The
boom
rivaled
the
California
gold
rush
of
1848
in
its
excitement
and
Wild
West
atmosphere.
And
it
brought
far
more
wealth
to
the
prospectors than any gold rush.


Crude oil
could
be
refined
into
many


Tectonics
and
Sea-floor
Spreading


The
theory
of
plate
tectonics
describes
the
motions
of
the
lithosphere,
the
comparatively rigid outer layer of the
Earth that includes all the crust and
part
of
the
underlying
mantle.
The
lithosphere(n.[
地
]
岩
石
圈
)i s
divided
into
a
few
dozen
plates
of
various
sizes
and
shapes,
in
general
the
plates
are
in
motion with respect to one another. A
mid-ocean ridge is a boundary between
plates where new lithospheric material
is injected from below. As the plates
diverge
from
a
mid-ocean
ridge
they
slide on a more yielding layer at the
base of the lithosphere.


Since
the
size
of
the
Earth
is
essentially constant, new lithosphere
can be created at the mid-ocean ridges
only
if
an
equal
amount
of
lithospheric
material
is
consumed
elsewhere.
The
site
of this destruction is another kind of
plate
boundary:
a
subduction
zone.
There
one
plate
dives
under
the
edge
of
another
and is reincorporated into the mantle.
Both
kinds
of
plate
boundary
are
associated
with
fault
systems,
earthquakes
and
volcanism,
but
the
kinds
of
geologic
activity
observed
at
the
two
boundaries are quite different.



The
idea
of
sea-floor
spreading
actually
preceded
the
theory
of
plate
tectonics.
In its original version, in the early
1960’s, it described the creation and
destruction of the ocean floor, but it
did
not
specify
rigid
lithospheric
plates.
The
hypothesis
was
substantiated
soon
afterward
by
the
variety
of
shapes,
they
may
be
dazzlingly
white,
or
they
may
be
glassy
blue,
green
or
purple,
tinted
faintly
of
in
darker
hues.
They
are
graceful,
stately,
inspiring
-----
in
calm,
sunlight seas.


But
they
are
also
called
frightening
and
dangerous, and that they are ---- in
discovery
that
periodic
reversals
of
the
Earth’s
magnetic
field
are
recorded
in
the
oceanic
crust.
As
magma
rises
under
the
mid-ocean
ridge,
ferromagnetic
minerals
in
the
magma
become
magnetized
in
the direction
of the
magma
become
magnetized
in
the
direction
of
the
geomagnetic
field.
When
the
magma
cools
and solidifies, the direction and the
polarity of the field are preserved in
the
magnetized
volcanic
rock.
Reversals
of the field give rise to a series of
magnetic
stripes
running
parallel
to
the
axis
of
the
rift.
The
oceanic
crust
thus
serves as a magnetic tape recording of
the
history
of
the
geomagnetic
field
that
can
be
dated
independently;
the
width
of
the
stripes
indicates
the
rate
of the sea-floor spreading.



37 Icebergs


Icebergs
are
among
nature’s
most
spectacular
creations,
and
yet
most
people have never seen one. A vague air
of
mystery
envelops
them.
They
come
into
being
-----
somewhere
------in
faraway,
frigid
waters,
amid
thunderous
noise
and
splashing
turbulence,
which
in
most
cases no one hears or sees. They exist
only a short time and then slowly waste
away just as unnoticed.


Objects
of
sheerest
beauty
they
have
been
called.
Appearing
in
an
endless
the night, in the fog, and in storms.
Even
in
clear
weather
one
is
wise
to
stay
a safe distance away from them. Most of
their
bulk
is
hidden
below
the
water,
so
their underwater parts may extend out
far beyond the visible top. Also, they
may
roll
over
unexpectedly,
churning
the
waters around them.


Icebergs
are
parts
of
glaciers
that
break off, drift into the water, float
about
awhile,
and
finally
melt.
Icebergs
afloat
today
are
made
of
snowflakes
that
have
fallen
over
long
ages
of
time.
They
embody
snows
that
drifted
down
hundreds,
or
many
thousands,
or
in
some
cases
maybe
a million years ago. The snows fell in
polar
regions
and
on
cold
mountains,
where they melted only a little or not
at
all,
and
so
collected
to
great
depths
over the years and centuries.


As
each
year’s
snow
accumulation
lay
on
the
surface,
evaporation
and
melting
caused
the
snowflakes
slowly
to
lose
their feathery points and become tiny
grains
of
ice.
When
new
snow
fell
on
top
of
the
old,
it
too
turned
to
icy
grains.
So
blankets
of
snow
and
ice
grains
mounted
layer
upon
layer
and
were
of
such
great thickness that the weight of the
upper
layers
compressed
the
lower
ones.
With time and pressure from above, the
many
small
ice
grains
joined
and
changed
to larger crystals, and eventually the
deeper
crystals
merged
into
a
solid
mass