ism英语写作手册 英文版 知识点

2021年1月24日发(作者：匈牙利语翻译)
Part One

Manuscript Form

You
should
do
everything
-
writing
the
title
,
leaving
margins
,
indenting,
capitalizing
.
Ⅰ
. Arrangement
排版


Write the
title
in the middle of the first line.
Capitalize the first and last words

of
the
title
and
all
other
words

(including
words
following
hyphens
in
compound
words)
except

articles
,
coordinating

conjunctions

(and,
or,
but,
nor,
for)
,
prepositions
, and the
to in infinitives.



Indent
the first line of every paragraph, leaving a space of about four or five
letters.

Ⅱ
. Word Division
移行


The
general
principle
is
to
divide
a
word
according
to
its
syllables.
Pay
attention to the following:

One- syllable words like through, march, brain and pushed cannot be divided.

Do not write one letter of a word at the end or at the beginning of a line, even
if that one letter makes up a syllable, such as a. lone, trick. y.

Do not put a two-letter syllable at the beginning of a line, like hat. ed, cab. in.

Avoid separating proper names of people or places, like Chi. na, Aus. ten.

Divide hyphenated words only at the hyphen: father-in-law, empty-handed.
Do not divide words in a way that may mislead the reader: pea. cock, re. ally.

Do not divide the last word on a page. Instead, write the whole word on the
next page.



Divide
words
with
prefixes
or
suffixes
between
the
prefix
or
suffix
and
the
base part of the word: re. state. ment, un. relent. ing.



Divide
two-syllable
words
with
double
consonants
between
the
two
consonants:
strug. gle, shat. ter.




Dividing words is not always easy. When in doubt, consult a dictionary

Ⅲ
. Capitalization
大写

Capitals are used mainly at three places:
the first words of sentences, key words in
titles,
and
proper names.

Ⅳ
. Punctuation
标点

V. Handwriting
书法

Write carefully so that your handwriting can be read easily.

Part Two

Diction
措词

Ⅰ
. Levels of Words
词的类型

The
words
that
are
often
used
may
be
divided,
from
a
stylistic
point
of
view,
into
three types:
formal, common, and informal
.
Formal
words may also be called
learned words
, or
literary words
, or

.
They
mainly
appear
in
formal
writing,
most
of
them
are
seldom
used
in
daily
conversation, except for special purposes.

those that people use every day, and appear in all kinds of writing., they are called

common words
.

There
are
words
which
are
mainly
used
in
informal
or
familiar
conversation.
They
seldom
appear
in
formal
writing,
and
in
literary
works
their
main
use
is
to
record
people's thoughts and dialogues. They are usually short words of one or two syllables
and most of them are of Saxon origin We may call them

informal
words
Slang
words are highly informal; they may be vivid and interesting, but they may,
when used inappropriately, make the writer or speaker sound offensive or funny
Ⅱ
. The Meaning of Words
词义

The
meaning
of
a
word
has
two
aspects:
denotative

and
connotative
.
A
word's
denotation is what it literally means, as defined by the dictionary; its connotation is
the feeling or idea suggested by it.
Ⅲ
. General and Specific Words
泛指词和特指词


Specific
words
help
to
make
writing
clear,
exact,
vivid,
and
striking
,
for
they
are
more informative and expressive than general words.


Ⅳ
. Idioms
习语

An idiom is a fixed group of words with a special meaning which is different from the
meanings of the words that form it.

Idioms
are
frequently
used
in
speech
and
writing.
They
help
to
make
one's
language sound
natural
and
idiomatic
.
Ⅴ
. Figures of Speech
修辞

Words used in their original meanings are used literally, while words used in extended
meanings for the purpose of making comparisons or calling up pictures in the reader's
or listener's mind are used figuratively.


1. Simile
明喻

It is a comparison between two distinctly different things and the
comparison is indicated by the word as or like.

2.
Metaphor
暗喻

It
is
the
use
of
a
word
which
originally denotes
one
thing
to
refer to another with a similar quality.


3. Personification
拟人

It is to treat a thing or an idea as if it were human or had
human qualities.
In poetry personification is very common:
In prose personification is also used, though not so often as in poetry.
4.
Metonymy
转喻

It
is
substituting
the
name
of
one
thing
for
that
of
another
with which it is closely associated.


5.
Synecdoche
提喻

When
a
part
is
substituted
for
the
whole
or
the
whole
is
substituted for a part, synecdoche is applied

6. Euphemism
委婉语

It is the substitution of a mild or vague expression for a
harsh or unpleasant one.
7. Irony
反语

It is the use of words which are clearly opposite to what is meant,
in order to achieve a special effect.

8.
Overstatement

and
understatement
夸大和缩小

In
overstatement
the
diction
exaggerates
the
subject,
and
in
understatement
the
words
play
down
the
magnitude or value of the subject. Overstatement is also called hyperbole.

Both
aim
at
the
same
effect:
to
make
the
statement
or
description
impressive
or
interesting.
9. Transferred

Epithet
移位修饰

An epithet is an adjective or descriptive phrase
that
serves
to
characterize
somebody
or
something.

A
transferred
epithet
is
one
that is shifted from the noun it logically modifies to a word associated with that noun.

10.
Oxymoron
矛盾修辞法

In
oxymoron
apparently
contradictory
terms
are
combined to produce a special effect.

11. Alliteration
押头韵

It refers to the appearance of the same initial consonant
sound in two or more words.

Alliteration
is
sometimes
used
in
prose
for
the
same
effect
-
to
join
two
or
more
related words.
Part Three

The Sentence

Ⅰ
. Complete Sentences and Sentence Fragments

A
grammatically
complete
sentence
is
one
that
contains
at
least
a

subject

and
a
predicate
(or finite)
verb
; if the verb is transitive, there must be an
object
; if the verb
is a
link- verb
, there must be a
predicative
or
complement
:
A complete sentence begins with a
capital
letter and ends with a
period.
Ⅱ
. Types of Sentences

1. Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamatory Sentences

According
to
their
use,
sentences
are
declarative,
interrogative,
imperative,
or
exclamatory
.
A
declarative

sentence
makes
an
assertion

or
a
statement.

An
interrogative

sentence
asks
a
question
.
An
imperative

sentence
expresses
a
command
or
a
request
.
An
exclamatory

sentence
expresses

a
strong
feeling
or
emotion

2. Simple, Compound, Complex, and Compound-Complex Sentences

According
to
their
structure

sentences
are
simple,
compound,
complex,
or
compound-complex.
A
simple
sentence has only
one subject and one predicate-verb,
but it may contain
more than one object, attribute or adverbial. A sentence with two or more subjects or
predicate-verbs

A
compound

sentence
consists
of
two
or
more
independent
clauses

(or
simple
sentences)
related
to
each
other
in
meaning,
and

linked
by
a
coordinating
conjunction
(and, but, or, etc.) or
by a semicolon
without a conjunction. Coordinated
ideas should be compatible and roughly equal in importance, or take shape one by one
in orderly sequence.
A

complex

sentence
contains
one
main
(or
principal)
clause
and
one
or
more
dependent
(or
subordinate)

clauses
,
with
a
connective
word
denoting
the
relation
between the two parts. The dependent clause may play the part of a
subject,
an
object,

a
predicative,
an
attribute,
or an
adverbial
in the main clause. As a rule, the major
idea is expressed in the main clause and the idea or ideas of lesser importance in the
subordinate clauses.
A compound-complex sentence contains
at least two main clauses
and
at least one
dependent clause
- a combination of a compound and a complex sentence.

Short simple sentences
are often used to
make emphatic or important statements,

such as the first sentence of the first passage and the last two sentences of the second
passage.
Long complex sentences
express
complex ideas
clearly and accurately.
3. Loose, Periodic, and Balanced Sentences

From a rhetorical point of view, sentences are
loose, periodic
, or
balanced
. A loose
sentence
puts
the

main
idea
before

all
supplementary
information;
The
reverse
arrangement makes a
periodic
sentence: the
main idea
is expressed
at or near the
end
of it, and it is not
grammatically complete until the end is reached. The reader
does not know what it is mainly about until he finishes reading it.
Loose

sentences
are
easier,
simpler,
more
natural
and

direct
;
periodic

sentences
are more
complex, emphatic, formal,
or
literary.

When
a
sentence
contains
two
or
more
parts
of
the
same
form
and
grammatical
function, it is one with parallel constructions.
Such
parallel
sentences
are
emphatic
and
forceful.
When
a
sentence
contains
two
parallel
clauses
similar
in
structure

but

contrasted
in
meaning
,
it
is
a
balanced
sentence.
Balanced
sentences
are
impressive

because
of
the
contrast,
and
pleasing
to
hear
because of the rhythm. They are mainly used in
formal writing
, like expository and
argumentative prose, and speeches.
4. Short and Long Sentences

Short
sentences
are
usually
emphatic
,
whereas
long
sentences
are
capable
of
expressing
complex
ideas

with
precision,
because
it
may
contain
many
modifiers.
Short
sentences
are
suitable
for
the
presentation

of
important
facts
and
ideas,
and
long sentences for the
explanation
of views and theories, or the description of things
with many details.
Various
sentence
structures
have
been
discussed.
The
basic
principle
is
that
the
structure should
fit the idea being expressed
. In other words, the idea determines the
choice of the structure, not the other way round.
Ⅲ
. Effective Sentences

1. Unity

Unity

is
the
first
quality
of
an
effective
sentence.
A
unified
sentence
expresses

a
single complete thought.


2. Coherence

Coherence means
clear
and
reasonable connection
between parts.

3. Conciseness

A sentence should contain no unnecessary words. If the idea is fully expressed, the
fewer words are used, the better.

Repetition is sometimes necessary for emphasis, but
unnecessary repetition
, either
of the same words or of different words with the same meaning, should be avoided.
Conciseness can sometimes be achieved by
changing
the
sentence structure.

4. Emphasis


(1) Emphatic Sentences

Sentences may be
emphasized
in the following ways:
Short sentences.

Sentence fragments.
They are also called one-member sentences.
Inverted sentences.
They are emphatic because their unusual word order draws the
reader's attention.
Parallel constructions and balanced sentences.

Periodic sentences.
Their climactic word order makes them emphatic.
Imperative and exclamatory sentences.
They are naturally emphatic:
Rhetorical
questions.

They
are
questions
in
form
but
emphatic
statements
in
meaning.
Negative- positive
statements.

They
first
point
out
what
is
not
the
truth,
and
then
what is. The contrast makes them emphatic
Sentences with repeated words or phrases.
The repetition gives emphasis to such
sentences.

(2) Emphasis within the Sentence

Various ways can be used to achieve emphasis within the sentence.
Placing.
The
beginning
and the
end, especially the end
, of a sentence are the two
places that attract the reader's attention.

Repetition.
Unnecessary repetition adds nothing new to the meaning of a sentence;
therefore
it
should
be
avoided.
in
a
proper
context
repeating
a
word
or
an
idea
in
different words may be a means of emphasis.
The verb and the active voice.

When describing
actions, one had better use verbs
instead of nouns denoting
actions, for verbs are
generally more vivid
and emphatic
than nouns.
Subordination.

This
means
putting
a
minor
idea
in
a
dependent
element
of
the
sentence so as to give the main idea a prominent position.
Emphatic
words
and
phrases.

There
are
words
and
phrases
that
may
be
used
to
emphasize other words.

Alliteration.
It means the appearance of the same consonant sound at the beginning
of two or more words, like
5. Variety

But variety is not to be sought for its own sake. The structure and length of sentences
are primarily determined by the
ideas to be expressed
.

Part Four

The Paragraph

A paragraph
is a unit of thought
. A long paragraph expresses a complex idea, and a
short one makes a major transition, an emphatic statement, or a summary.
Ⅰ
. Effective Paragraphs
A
paragraph
is
like
a
mini- essay;
it
should
be

unified,
coherent
and
well
development.


1. Unity

Unity
of
a
paragraph
is
concerned
with
its
content
.
If
all
the
sentences
in
the
paragraph lead to one central theme, the paragraph is
unified. The
central theme
is
usually
summarized
in
what
is
called
the
topic
sentence
.
It
often
appears

at
the
beginning
of the paragraph; however, it may also be found
in the middle
or
at the
end
of
a
paragraph.
Sometimes,
the
topic
sentence
is
not
stated
explicitly
but
is

implied.


2. Coherence

Coherence
of
a
paragraph
is
concerned
with
its

form,

or
its
organization.

The
sentences
in
a
paragraph
should
be
arranged
in
a
clear,
logical
order,

and
the
transitions
should be
smooth
and
natural
.

3. Transition

The following ways may help the writer to produce a fluent paragraph:
A. Using parallel structures;
B. Repeating words or word groups;
C. Using pronouns to refer to nouns in preceding sentences;
D. Being consistent in the person and number of nouns and pronouns, and the tense of
verbs.
Ⅱ
. Ways of Developing Paragraphs

1. Planning a Paragraph

Paragraphs need to be planned. First, think of the
topic
or
theme
or
main idea
, and
express
it
in
a
complete
sentence
(topic
sentence).
Then
think
of
the
details

or
examples
or
facts
that may be used to support or explain the main idea. Work out an

outline
to arrange them in
logical order
, and you have a rough plan of the paragraph.

2. Development by Time

In telling a
story
or recounting an
event
, the easiest and clearest way is to
describe
things
in order of time
: earlier things are mentioned before later things, the first thing
first and the last thing last. This method is also called
chronological sequencing
.

3. Development by Process

When you have to explain how something is done, you usually follow a chronological
sequence and give a
step- by-step description
.

4. Development by Space

Before
we
begin
to
describe
a
place,
we
have
to
decide
on
the
order

in
which

to
name
the
different
parts
or
details
.
For
this
we
should
find
out
the
space
relationships
between them and arrange our description accordingly.

5. Development by Example or Generalization

Supporting a topic sentence with examples or illustrations makes a general statement
specific and easy to understand.

There
are
two
pattern
of
arrangement
of
details
(or
examples)
in
a
paragraph:
the
general-to-specific or the specific-to-the general


Details
or
examples
are
usually
arranged
in

climactic
order
:
the
least
important
comes first, followed by others in order of increasing importance.

6. Development by Comparison and Contrast

Strictly speaking, a comparison points out the
similarities
between two things of the
same thing, while a contrast, the
differences
between them. There are two major ways
of
organizing
paragraphs
of
comparison
and
contrast.
One
way
is
to
examine
one
thing thoroughly and then examine the other. In this way, the aspects examined in the
two
things
should
be
identical
and
in
the
same
order.
This
method
is
called
block
comparison or block contrast.
The other way is to examine two things at the same
time, discussing them point by point. This method is called
alternating comparison
or alternating contrast.
Alternating contrast is used when you want to point out several differences between
two things or people without discussing them in great detail. You merely point out a
special feature of one item
and then state how the other item
differs from
it in that
aspect.
Block
comparison
is
suitable
when
the
writer
wants
to
treat
points
of
similarity
in
depth. In this way each point is drawn out and its relationship to another point is made
clear. This type of comparison is often used when the points of similarity discussed
are not many but complex, and require much explanation.



There is
a special form of
comparison
-

analogy.
Analogy is
tracing a
striking
likeness
between unlike things.
Analogies are especially helpful in explaining
abstract ideas
, for they relate ideas
that cannot be experienced through the senses of sight, smell, hearing, touch, or taste,
to a sense experience, thus making the ideas easy to understand.

7. Development by Cause and Effect

Sound
reasoning
or
logic
is
naturally
the
most
important
quality
of
any
causal
analysis. There are two basic ways of organizing paragraphs developed by cause and
effect. The first method is to
state an effect
and devote the rest of the paragraph to
examining
the
causes.
The
second
method
is
to
state
a
cause

and
then
mention
or
predict the effects.


8. Development by Classification

To
classify
is
to
sort
things
into
categories

according
to
their
characteristics
.
Essential to a good classification is
parallelism
.
9. Development by Definition

There
are
three
basic
ways
to
define
a
word
or
term:
to
give
a
synonym
,
to
use
a
sentence
(often with an attributive clause), and to write a
paragraph
or even an
essay
.
When we give a definition, we should observe certain
principles.

First, we should
avoid circular definitions.


Second,
we
should

avoid
long
lists
of
synonyms

if
the
term
to
be
defined
is
an
abstract one.

Third, we should avoid
loaded definitions
. Loaded definitions do not explain terms
but make an immediate appeal for emotional approval.