-
Part
1
Paragraph Development by Listing
一、授课时间：
Feb.22- Feb.25
二、授课类型：理论课
三
、授课题目：
Paragraph development by listing
四、教学目的和要求：
To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by listing
五．教学重点及难点：
The structure of a listing paragraph
六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤
讲授法、讨论法、师生互动
Step I
Greetings
Step II
Introduction to TEM4
Step III Presentation
Focus:
Listing is probably the most common way to develop a paragraph
The structure of a listing paragraph
Notes
Samples and analyses
Listing
is
an
extremely
common
way
to
develop
paragraphs.
It
can
be
used
to
analyze
causes
and
effects,
to
state
the
importance
of
something,
to
list
the
shortcomings
or
benefits. It can also be used to refute opponents’ ideas, or to state personal opinions.
5.1 The structure
Most
often
listing
paragraph
starts
with
a
general
statement
and
proceeds
to
details.
In
other words, the paragraph starts with a topic sentence that states a point of view and then
provides discussions usually ordered from the most important idea to the least important,
or vice versa.
The following formats show how paragraph can be built up by listing.
1. The importance of English cannot be overemphasized.
First, ….
Second,….
Third,….
Finally, ….
2. This book will have a major impact on both politics and economics in China.
In politics, …
In economics, ….
3. Reading extensively is obviously of great benefit in learning a new language.
For one thing, ….
For another, ….
In the end, …
4. The negative effects of the infections disease on service businesses were obvious in the
first few months.
Firstly/ for example, ….
1
Secondly, ….
Thirdly, ….
Lastly, ….
5.2 Notes
There are several points that are worth our attention when we build a paragraph by listing:
First, arrange the supporting ideas in a logical order. It is true that we should arrange the
supporting
ideas
in
a
logical
order
in
everything
we
write
for
other
people;
otherwise,
paragraphs are not effective or cannot be best followed by readers. Chinese students, when
writing in English, tend to focus all their attention on expressing ideas, and thus ignore the
arrangement of the ideas.
For example:
Teachers
of
foreign
languages
should
be
extremely
well-qualified
in
order
to
carry
out
their duties properly. Interest in teaching, social skills to deal with all kinds of students,
mastery
of
modern
audio-lingual
techniques
and
competence
in
the
target
language
are
four basic requirements of
language teachers…
If the paragraph goes on from this topic sentence, the paragraph will not be quite effective
as the
supporting
ideas
are not
arranged in
an
effective order. “competence in the target
language” is the most important idea among the four; therefore, it should be placed first.
When
the
idea
to
be
developed
are
placed
in
order
of
importance,
the
argument
will
be
stronger.
The second point we should pay attention to when we develop a listing paragraph is the
correct use of listing expressions. Figure 1 shows the possible expressions used for listing.
Figure 1 possible expressions for listing
The first point
Other points
The last point
First,
Second,
Last,
Firstly,
Secondly,
The last
…
First of all,
Next,
Lastly,
To begin with,
The next
…
In the end,
Primarily,
Then,
Finally,
Initially,
Moreover,
The final
…
For one thing
Furthermore,
Most importantly
In addition,
For the other,
Another,
The other,
More importantly
When we use these expressions, we should follow these rules:
1. Don’t mix sets of listing expressions
Chinese writers tend to mix sets of expressions used for listing. It is not good style to do so.
Be consistent when using the following two basic sets of expressions used for listing:
First
firstly
firstly
Secondly
second
secondly
Thirdly
third
thirdly
Finally,
finally
finally
2
2. Distinguish “first” and “at first”
“first”
is
a
listing
word,
but
“at
first”
is
not.
“at
first”
indicates
a
change.
Compare
the
following two sentences.
First, you should be frank.
At first he was a little shy in class, but now he acts more natural.
“at first” is often used as the following: after a while
At first … but now ….
later
then;
e.g.
At
first
he
had
one
small
shop;
now
he
is
the
owner
of
a
vast
business
with
many
branches.
3. Distinguish “lastly” and “at last”
“lastly”
is
a
listin
g
word,
but
“at
last”
is
not.
“
A
t
last”
indicate
that
something
happens
after a long expectation.
For example:
Lastly, I would like summarize the points of my argument.
We waited and waited, still at last, after a three-hour delay, the train arrived in the station.
5.3 Samples and analyses
Sample paragraph 1:
Sentence Functions in Paragraph Development
The sentence in the most well written paragraphs has one of four common functions.
First, there are paragraph introducers, which are sentences that establish the topic focus of
the paragraph as a whole. Second, there are several paragraph developers, which present
examples
or
details
of
various
kinds
that
support
the
ideas
set
forth
by
the
paragraph
introducers.
Third,
there
are
viewpoint
or
context
modulators,
which
are
sentences
that
provide
a
smooth
transition
between
different
sets
of
ideas.
Fourth,
there
are
paragraph
terminators,
which
logically
conclude
the
ideas
discussed
in
the
paragraph
in
a
psychologically satisfying manner. Not all pieces of writing will conform to this analysis;
however,
most
successful
paragraphs
usually
contain
some
combination
of
these
four
sentence types.
Analysis:
This is a typical paragraph developed by listing and also a very unified and coherent
paragraph.
七、作业、讨论题、思考题
Write a paragraph by listing
八、课后小结
:
九、参考资料
:
Cheryal Pavlik
，
《写作通》
，辽宁教育出版社，
2005
陈会军，
《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》
，外文出版社，
2004
吕煦，
《实用英语修辞》
，清华大学出版社，
2005
3
Part
2
Paragraph Development by Classification
一、授课时间：
Mar.l - Mar.3
二、授课类型：理论课
三
、授课题目：
Paragraph development by classification
四、教学目的和要求：
To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by classification
五．教学重点及难点：
The structure of a classification paragraph
六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤
讲授法、讨论法、师生互动
Step I
Greetings
Step II
Check of homework
Step III Presentation
Focus:
Expressions for classification
Organization of a classifying paragraph
Samples and analyses
Note: parallel classification
Classification is one of the most useful methods for explaining an object or idea. We break
a
general
class
down
and
group
the
parts
into
categories
whose
members
share
similar
characteristics.
With
this
method,
we
create
order
out
of
confusion
and
provide
a
clear
overview of the information we offer.
6.1 Expressions for classification
Expressions in the following table are common words used for classification. They are in
two groups:
Verbs
Nouns
Fall into
class
Divide
…into
group
Group….into
sort
Sort…into
kind
Category
Label
Type
In practice, to avoid sounding repetitions, writers often use a variety of classification words
rather than just stick to only one word.
6.2 Organization
Like
other
standard
paragraphs,
a
classification
paragraph
may
also
consist
of
a
topic
introducer
to
introduce
the
subject
to
be
classified,
a
topic
sentence
to
provide
the
controlling
idea,
supporting
details
to
clarify
the
nature
of
the
classification
and
a
concluding
sentence
to
end
the
paragraph.
sometimes
the
topic
introducer
and
the
concluding sentence are unnecessary.
Topic sentence
If a paragraph starts with only a topic sentence, apart from a clear topic, the topic sentence
4
for a classifying paragraph should indicate
the criterion
of classification and the
number
of
smaller groups into which our topic group is broken. Fro example:
1. There are different kinds of people in society.
2. Any good library should contain three basic types of materials.
Sentence 1 is not a good topic sentence, as it does not indicate the criterion by which the
classification is made. The second sentence is a good topic sentence as it contains the topic
“any good library,” and the controlling id
ea should contain three basic types of materials.
The criterion is “basic types” and the number “three”.
Note: The criterion of classification may also be clearly indicated in each support.
Supporting details
The supporting items in a classifying paragraph are parallel and are presented by listing.
Therefore,
generally
speaking,
the
classifying
paragraph
is
also
a
listing
paragraph.
we
make
a
list
of
the
items
and
discuss
them
one
by
one.
We
achieve
coherence
by
using
listing words.
6.3 Samples and Analyses
Sample 1
The classification of Paragraphs
Individual paragraphs
—
the building blocks of essays, articles, chapters, and other longer
papers
—
may
be
classified
in
a
variety
of
ways.
At
the
essay
level,
paragraphs
may
be
sorted into functional groups such as introductory, developmental, transitional, and the like.
Depending upon the purpose or intent of the writer, particular paragraphs may be thought
of
as
aiming
to
persuade,
inform,
argue,
or
excite.
Paragraphs
may
also
be
classified
according
to
such
techniques
of
development
as
comparison,
contrast,
and
definition.
Another
developmental device might also be the classification paragraph, which organized
items
or
ideas
to
be
discussed
into
relatively
homogeneous
groups.
Such
classifications
make it possible to talk about a large number of paragraphs by grouping them into a small
number of classes.
--author unknown
Analysis:
This is a well-written classifying paragraph. it is unified. The topic sentence presents the
topic “paragraphs” and the controlling
idea “can be classified in a variety of ways”. The
word
“classified”
indicates
the
type
of
the
paragraph
and
“a
variety
of
ways”
is
the
controlling idea to be developed. The specific criteria for classification are clearly stated in
each
supporting
item.
At
the
end,
the
writer
makes
a
personal
comment
on
the
classification
in
the
paragraph,
thus
binding
the
whole
paragraph
together.
There
are
no
sentences that are unrelated.
This
paragraph
is
also
a
coherent
paragraph.
the
structure
itself
prompts
coherence.
Furthermore, repetitions of the key word “paragraph” plays an important role in binding all
the details together.
Sample:
Hotel
Hotels are found in every country and city of the world. Generally, they can be classified
into
three
large
groups
based
on
location.
First,
airport
hotels
are
located
near
airports.
Their guests include passengers of short stay- overs or canceled flights and travelers who
are on business. The
second
type is downtown hotels,
also
called commercial hotels. These
5
hotels
are
near
large
office
complexes
and
retail
stores
in
the
major
metropolitan
areas.
They are attractive to people attending meetings and conventions, and to many tourists as
well.
Third,
there are
also
resort hotels located near beaches or mountains. Resort hotels
accommodate vacationers and recreation- minded people.
Though
there may be a few other
areas
where
hotels
are
found,
such
as
along
highways,
most
of
them
are
located
near
airports, in downtown areas, and in resort areas.
Analysis:
This is a unified and coherent paragraph developed by classification. It is different from
sample
paragraph
1
in
that
the
paragraph
begins
with
the
topic
introducer
and
the
topic
sentence e instead of the topic sentence only.
The
topic
sentence
of
this
paragraph
is
a
very
good
topic
sentence.
Not
only
does
it
indicate
the
type
of
the
paragraph
by
the
word
“classify”,
but
it
also
presents
the
controlling idea “classify into three groups based on location”. The number of categories is
made clear (“three”) and the criterion of classification is also stated (“location”).
The
mention
of
exceptions
to
the
classification
gives
the
writer
an
air
of
accuracy
and
thoroughness.
The
summary
in
the
concluding
sentence
binds
the
supporting
details
together and thus ends the paragraph satisfactorily.
Major
cohesive
devices
the
writer
uses
include
effective
organization
of
the
paragraph,
transitional expressions and repetition of the key word “hotels”
Sample 3
Three types of Parents
All
parents
throughout
the world
love their children whole heartedly, and so do Chinese
parents. I know parents in China fall into three categories based on their attitude to the only
child in the family. First is the satisfying. I haven’t traveled much, but in my experience
satisfying parents are all alike no matter where they live. They make every effort to meet
all, even unreasonable demands made by the child. Second is the authoritative. From I’ve
read in the newspapers, authoritative parents think they are right all the time, so they want
to
the child to
obey. The child should
always be ready to
do what
they want
him to
do.
Third are friend-
like parents. They want to be and are the child’s friends and will discuss
things with
the child.
I
don’t
think
I
fit
any
of these
categories, but
you can place most
parents in china into one of these three groups.
--student
Analysis:
This
paragraph,
the
sentence
“but
I
know
people’s
political
views
fall
into
only
three
categories”
tells
that
this
is
also
a
classifying
paragraph.
although
this
is
a
unified
and
coherent paragraph, several expressions in this paragraph indicate that the classification in
this
paragraph
is
based
on
limited
experience.
These
expressions
include
“I
know”,
“I
haven’t
traveled much,
but
in
my
experience”,
“from
what
I’ve
read in the newspapers”
and “in my opinion”. Such expressions make the writing rather informal, a style should be
avoided
in
academic
writing.
A
formal
style
of
exposition
is
likely
to
lead
to
greater
success
in
school
as
well
as
in
one’s
professional
career.
It
may
be
characterized
as
an
academic
style. In academic writing, personal indicators like “I”, “in my opinion”, “as far
as I am concerned” should be used as little as possible.
6.4 Note: Parallel Classification
In classification, we should pay attention to two points:
6
First, parallelism is
essential to a good classification. If we classify types of writing, we
may mention narration, description, exposition and argumentation. If writings are classified
into novels, dramas, description, cause $$ effect, comparison $$ contrast, and argumentation,
the classification is not good because the types classified are not parallel: As what the tree
in
Fig. 14-1 illustrates,
description and argumentation
are
general
categories;
novels
and
dramas
are
particular
literary
genres,
while
cause
&
effect,
comparison
&
contrast
are
specific forms of exposition. In a word, in a good classification, the parts must be parallel,
and they should add up to a whole.
Second, the criteria used for classification should be consistent. For example, if we classify
paragraphs into argumentative, informative, cause & effect and comparison &contrast, we
are using different criteria. Thus, the classification cannot be logically sound. We should
apply one criterion in one classification.
七、作业、讨论题、思考题
Write a paragraph by classification
八、课后小结
:
九、参考资料
:
Cheryal Pavlik
，
《写作通》
，辽宁教育出版社，
2005
陈会军，
《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》
，外文出版社，
2004
吕煦，
《实用英语修辞》
，清华大学出版社，
2005
祁寿华，
《西方写作理论、教学与实践》
，上海教育出版社
, 2000
7
Part 3
Paragraph Development by Comparison or Contrast
一、授课时间：
Mar.8 - Mar.10
二、授课类型：理论课
三
、授课题目：
Paragraph development by Comparison or Contrast
四、教学目的和要求：
To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by comparison or contrast
五．教学重点及难点：
The structure of a comparison or contrast paragraph
六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤
讲授法、讨论法、师生互动
Step I
Greetings
Step II
Check of homework
Step III Presentation
Focus:
Comparison or contrast indicators
Indicators of comparison
Indicators of contrast
Organization of a comparison or contrast paragraph
Topic sentence
Points of comparison or contrast
Emphasis in comparison or contrast
Supporting details
Items to be compared or contrasted should be comparable
Patterns of organization
Concluding sentence
Samples and analyses
Comparison
or
contrast
paragraphs
are
used
to
show
similarities
or
differences
between
two things. A comparison paragraph focuses on similarities, while a contrast paragraph on
differences. A paragraph usually concentrates only on similarities or differences, not both
at
the
same
time.
With
comparison
and
contrast,
the
purpose
is
not
just
to
point
out
similarities
and
differences
or
advantages
and
disadvantages,
but
to
present
information
about
something
unfamiliar
by
comparing
it
with
something
familiar,
or
to
show
the
superiority
of
one
thing
by
comparing
it
with
another,
or
to
show
the
similarities
or
differences of two things to help the reader evaluate them.
Comparison or contrast paragraphs use indicators to link similarities or differences.
7.1 Comparison or contrast indicators
7.1.1 Indicators of comparison
There are several similarities between A and B.
A and B have the same view of the world.
A and B have a lot in common.
In common with A, B prefers meat to fish.
A resembles B in that A is also interested in collecting stamps.
8
Both A and B have long hair.
Both A and B are interested in shopping.
A likes fishing, B likes fishing, too.
A likes swimming, so does B.
Just as A likes to be quiet, B likes to stay alone.
Like A, B likes outdoor sports.
A likes swimming. The same with A, B also likes swimming.
A and B are the same in that they both like swimming in the sea.
A and B have the same interests.
A likes swimming in a pond; similarly, B likes swimming in the sea.
7.1.2 Indicators of contrast (
表示对照的词语
)
Unlike A, B likes outdoor sports.
In contrast to A, B likes outdoor sports.
Different from A, B likes outdoor sports.
Contrary to A, B likes outdoor sports.
As opposed to A, B likes outdoor sports.
A is different from B in that B likes outdoor sports.
A differs from B in that B likes outdoor sports.
A contrasts with B in that B likes outdoor sports.
A like indoor activities; however/ in contrast/ on the other hand, B like outdoor sports.
A likes indoor activities; B, however, likes outdoor sports.
A likes indoor activities, but B likes outdoor sports.
A likes indoor activities, whereas / while B likes outdoor sports.
A is not as active as B.
A is more /less active than B.
7.2 Organization
As
you
have
learned
in
previous
lessons,
a
well-organized
paragraph
consists
of
topic
sentence,
supporting
sentences,
and
concluding
sentence.
In
writing
comparison
paragraphs, however, a topic introducer sometimes may be necessary. The topic sentence
then controlling idea.
7.2.1 Topic sentence
In a comparison or contrast paragraph, usually the topic introducer tells the two things to
be compared or contrasted, and the topic sentence tells the controlling idea. Or if there is
no topic introducer, the topic sentence introduces the two things to be discussed and the
controlling idea.
Points of comparison or contrast
The points to be compared or contrasted are usually indicated in the topic sentence. If you
were
asked
to
compare
and
contrast
two
people,
you
could
compare
their
looks,
backgrounds,
philosophies,
the
ways
they
treat
people,
their
attitudes
toward
life,
their
intelligence, their lifestyles, and so on. Then it is best to restrict the points of comparison to
two-four
points
and
choose
the
most
significant
points
for
comparison
or
contrast
that
would support the controlling idea. For instance, If you were comparing two politicians in
order
to
show
that
one
is
more
diplomatic,
you
would
not
bother
with
comparing
and
contrasting their tastes in food; it would be irrelevant.
Emphasis in comparison or contrast
9
The
topic
sentence
should
also
indicate
the
emphasis
of
the
paragraph,
either
similarities or differences. In a comparison or contrast paragraph, the emphasis is usually
on
one
or
the
other.
Very
commonly
if
you
are
comparing
two
rather
dissimilar
things,
acknowledge
the
obvious
similarities
but
focus
on
the
differences.
If
you
are
comparing
two
obviously
similar
things,
acknowledge
the
obvious
differences
but
emphasize
the
similarities.
Compare the following two topic sentences and see which one is better.
1.
Although
both
our
pet
cats
look
lovely,
their
differences
in
temperament
is
constant
source of amusement.
2. Our two pet cats are quite different.
Obviously, topic sentence 1 is
better than topic sentence 2
for three reasons:
First,
topic
sentence
2
is
too
general
to
be
developed
in
one
paragraph.
it
does
not
restrict
the
controlling ideas as to what points of the two cats to contrast. Second, topic sentence 1 not
only indicates the point to be contrasted but also reveals that the purpose of the writer is
not just to show the difference but to reveal a source of amusement. Third, topic sentence 1
acknowledges the obvious similarity of the two pet cats, and then indicates the differences
a s the focus of the paragraph.
7.2.2 Supporting details
Items to be compared or contrasted should be comparable
The points or items to be compared or contrasted should be parallel or of the same category;
otherwise, the items would be incomparable. For example, if you were asked to compare
two people: A and B, which of the following two suggestions you would follow:
Table 1
Table 2
A and B in Table 2 can be compared because the items to be compared are the same and
are comparable, whereas A and B in Table 1 cannot be compared because the items to be
compared are incomparable. Therefore, when writing a comparison or contrast paragraph,
we should pay attention to the point that the items to be compared or contrasted should be
comparable.
Patterns of organization
There
are
two
basic
patterns
for
developing
comparison
and
contrast
paragraph:
the
alternative pattern and the block pattern. Suppose we are to compare two cars: car X and
car
Y
.
the
points
to
be
compared
might
be
the
cost
of
maintenance,
performance,
and
comfort. Using the alternative pattern, we should organize the paragraph as the following.
Alternative Pattern
Topic sentence: X is a better car than Y in terms of the cost of maintenance, performance
and comfort.
I. Cost of maintenance A. Car X
B. Car Y
II. Performance A. Car X
B. Car Y
III. Comfort A. Car X
B. Car Y
The alternative pattern is easier to follow than the other: the block pattern.
Block Pattern
Topic sentence: X is a better car than Y in terms of cost of maintenance, performance
and comfort.
1. Car X
10
A. Cost of Maintenance
B. Performance
C. Comfort
2. Car Y
A. Cost of maintenance
B. Performance
C. .Comfort
Note that the points of comparison are the same and that they are discussed in the same
order under each section. One of the problems with the block pattern is that it is sometimes
difficult
to
remind
the
reader
in
the
second
section
how
the
points
are
compared
or
contrasted in the first section. Therefore, generally speaking, the block pattern is used less
often than the alternative pattern.
7.2.3 Concluding sentence
No
matter
whether
it
is
a
comparison
or
contrast
paragraph,
the
concluding
sentence
is
usually
a
restatement
of
the
topic
sentence
or
a
summary
of
the
points
compared
or
contrasted in the development of the paragraph. to show a cautious attitude, the writer may
mention little of exceptions.
七、作业、讨论题、思考题
Write a paragraph by comparison or contrast.
八、课后小结
:
九、参考资料
:
Cheryal Pavlik
，
《写作通》
，辽宁教育出版社，
2005
陈会军，
《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》
，外文出版社，
2004
吕煦，
《实用英语修辞》
，清华大学出版社，
2005
祁寿华，
《西方写作理论、教学与实践》
，上海教育出版社
, 2000
11
Part 4 Paragraph Development by Cause and Effect
一、授课时间：
Mar.l5 - Mar.17
二、授课类型：理论课
三
、授课题目：
Paragraph development by Cause and Effect
四、教学目的和要求：
To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by cause and effect
五．教学重点及难点：
The structure of a cause and effect paragraph
六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤
讲授法、讨论法、师生互动
Step I
Greetings
Step II
Check of homework
Step III Presentation
Focus:
Indicators of cause and effect
Organization of a cause-effect paragraph
Patterns of organization
Topic sentence
Supporting details
Concluding sentence
Samples and analyses
8.1 Indicators of cause and effect
Indicators of cause and effect fall into four categories with different structures.
1. The indicator of cause and effect is the verb in the sentence with the cause in the subject
position.
Cause
Effect
The high cost of living
leads to
w
omen’s having
contributes to
to work outside the
results in
home.
is the reason for
is responsible for
causes
women to work
outside the home
2. The indicator of cause and effect is the verb in the sentence, with the effect in the subject
position.
Cause
Effect
Women working
comes from
outside the home
stems from
results from
financial necessity.
12
is the result of
is due to
is a consequence of
3. The indicator of cause and effect joins two independent clauses. In this group, notice the
punctuation.
Cause
Effect
Many women have
consequently,
they go back to
financial difficulties;
therefore,
work.
thus,
hence,
as a result
Many women have
and so
they go back to work.
financial difficulties,
and that is why
so
Many women have
For this reason,
they go back to work.
financial difficulties.
That is why,
Accordingly,
Because of this,
4.
In
this
group,
the
indicator
joins
a
subordination.
Again,
notice
the
punctuation.
Remember also that the subordinate clause can be either at the beginning or at the end of
the sentence.
Cause
Effect
Since
so many women have
t
he days of the “happy
Because
gone back to work,
housewife” are over.
A s
Because of
many women’s having
the days of the“happy housewife”
Owing to
gone back to work,
are over.
Thanks to
Due to
As a result of
So many women have
that
the days of the “happy
back to work
housewife” are over.
Many women have
so that
the days of the “happy
gone
back to work,
housewife” are over.
Effect
cause
The days of the “happy housewife”
because
so many women have
are over
since
gone back to work.
as
8.2 Organization
8.2.1 Patterns of organization
13
The basic patterns of arranging a cause and effect paragraph (or an essay) are:
Block organization :
1. causes- effects
A causes B (and C, and D)
2. effects -causes
A is caused by B (and C and D,…)
Chain organization:
cause
–
effect- cause- effect
A causes B, B causes C, and C causes D
When
these
patterns
are
applied
to
a
single
paragraph,
A,
B,
C
and
D
each
may
be
contained in one or two sentences; when applied to an essay, each letter may be the subject
of an entire paragraph.
8.2.2 Topic sentence
The topic sentence of a cause- effect paragraph should indicate the focus of the paragraph:
causes or effects.
Examples:
1. This surge of demand fo
r oil will soon begin to send shock waves through America’s
economy and transportation system.
2. There are many reasons why languages change, but three major causes help illustrate the
concept.
3. (Thirty-six per cent of the freshmen entering a large New York university are dismissed
during or at the end of the first year.) Studies indicate that this alarming rate of failure is
due to a variety of causes, some of which are beyond the control of the student.
8.2.3 Supporting details
If the topic sentence states a cause, most probably, the paragraph will focus on effects; thus,
the developing sentences of the paragraph are to predict the effects. Otherwise, if the topic
sentence
states
an
effect,
most
probably,
the
paragraph
will
focus
on
the
causes
of
the
effect;
then
the
development
of
the
paragraph
is
to
examine
the
causes.
The
most
commonly used methods include details, examples and statistics, etc.
When we develop a paragraph by cause and effect, we should be clear that the technique of
cause and effect has great flexibility, for the relationships between causes and effects are
not always clear-cut, as the two terms seem to suggest. For example, causes may not all
carry
the
same
weight.
Several
contributing
causes
may
be
grouped
together
to
form
an
important cause. There may be one effect to a cause, or there may be many. Effects may be
less important than causes, or vice versa.
8.2.4 Concluding sentence
The concluding sentence usually summarizes the causes examined in the development, or
restates the topic sentence, or suggests what measures should be taken based on the causes
or
effects,
or
predicts
what
is
going
to
happen
in
the
future,
or
raises
a
related
question
after the analysis of the causes or effects.
8.3 Samples and Analyses
Sample 1
According to official statistics, more than 10,000 people in the country were killed in car
accidents last year. The increasing rate of car accidents can be attributed to three general
causes.
Mechanical
problems
of
cares,
such
as
faulty
brakes,
bald
tires,
and
flat
tires,
14
contribute to the high rate of car accidents. Environmental problems, such as blind corners,
narrow
streets,
heavy
fog,
slippery
roads
cause
a
significant
number
of
disasters.
Such
errors of human problems as excessive speed and drunken driving are considered the major
factor of the fatal accidents.
If drivers had been careful, many needless slaughters in car
accidents could have been avoided.
--author unknown
Analysis:
This paragraph is follows the “A is caused by B (and C and D,…) ” Pattern. It begins with
a topic introducer that offers a fact by statistics, and then a topic sentence to indicate the
type
of
the
writing.
In
the
development,
the
writer
explains
why
or
how
the
fact
came
about.
In
the
end,
with
a
subjunctive
sentence,
the
paragraph
makes
the
suggestion
that
drivers should be careful.
七、作业、讨论题、思考题
Write a paragraph by cause and effect
八、课后小结
:
九、参考资料
:
Cheryal Pavlik
，
《写作通》
，辽宁教育出版社，
2005
陈会军，
《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》
，外文出版社，
2004
吕煦，
《实用英语修辞》
，清华大学出版社，
2005
祁寿华，
《西方写作理论、教学与实践》
，上海教育出版社
, 2000
15
Part 5
Paragraph Development by Process Description
一、授课时间：
Mar.22 - Mar.24
二、授课类型：理论课
三
、授课题目：
Paragraph development by process description
四、教学目的和要求：
To make the students know how to develop paragraphs by process description
五．教学重点及难点：
The structure of a process description paragraph
六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤
讲授法、讨论法、师生互动
Step I
Greetings
Step II
Check of homework
Step III Presentation
Focus:
Transitions used in a process paragraph
Organization of a process paragraph
Topic sentence
Supporting details
Concluding sentence
A process paragraph is a paragraph written to explain how something is done. To do this,
we usually follow a chronological sequence and describe the process step by step. Process
description is similar to the procedures followed in conducting a scientific experiment. It
describes
definite steps in a necessary order. The misplacement of any
action will cause
confusion.
In a process paragraph, uses of imperative sentences, the indefinite pronoun “you” and the
present tense are common.
9.1 Transitions used in a process paragraph (
描述过程的联接词
)
Transitions used in a process paragraph include listings words and words indicating time.
The following table illustrates some listing words that can be used to describe a process.
As we should follow a chronological order in a process description, to write a successful
process paragraph, we need to use chronological connectors. These include:
Before, after, when, as soon as, once, as, prior to
9.2 Organization
9.2.1 Topic sentence
In a well-constructed process description, the topic sentence established the context of the
process
to
be
developed
in
succeeding
sentences.
To
do
this,
conditional
sentences
are
usually used.
Examples:
1. Even if you don’t know how to cook, you’ll never starve to death if yo
u know how to
prepare scrambled eggs.
2. Deep river diving can be a safe and exciting sport if you prepare carefully.
3. Once you encounter a person who has stopped breathing, you should begin immediately
to do mouth-to-mouth breathing.
4. If you want to be a successful salesman, you need only to follow several basic steps.
16
9.2.2 Supporting details
In the developmental part, a process paragraph describes definite steps in a necessary order.
Usually,
the
paragraph
describes
the
steps
in
a
chronological
order.
All
the
supporting
details are co-ordinate as illustrated in the following example outline.
Outline 1
Topic sentence: Do you want to enjoy five- flavored shelled peanuts cooked by yourself? If
do, you should follow the following steps carefully.
Supporting details:
1. Shell some peanuts.
2. Pour the shelled peanuts in a pot.
3. Spread a reasonable amount of salt, fennel, aniseeds, tea and ginger on the peanuts.
4. Pour some boiling water into the pot.
5. Soak the peanuts in the pot for 24 hours.
6. Get the soaked shelled peanuts out from the pot.
7. Dry the peanuts in the sun.
8. Pour some sand in an oven.
9. Heat and frequently stir the sand in the oven on slow fire for about five minutes.
10. Mix the dried peanuts with the heated sand.
11. Stir the mixture all the time.
12. Remove the peanuts immediately when you think the peanuts are cooked.
13. Spread the hot peanuts on a clean flat board.
Another way of developing a paragraph by process description is to present several major
steps
under
which
there
are
some
sub-steps.
Compare
the
following
arrangement
of
the
supporting details with those in the outline above.
Outline 2
Topic sentence: Do you want to enjoy five-flavored shelled peanuts cooked by yourself? If
so, you follow the following steps carefully.
Supporting details:
1. Preparation:
a. Shell some peanuts.
b. Pour the shelled peanuts in a pot.
c. Spread a reasonable amount of salt, fennel, aniseeds, tea and ginger on the peanuts.
d. Pour some boiling water into the pot
e. Soak the clean-shelled peanuts in the pot for 24 hours.
f. Get the soaked shelled peanuts out from the pot.
g. Dry the peanuts in the sun.
2. Cooking:
a. Pour some sand in an oven.
b. Heat and frequently stir the sand in the oven on slow fire for about five minutes.
c. Mix the dried peanuts with the heated sand.
d. Stir the mixture all the time.
e. Remove the peanuts immediately when you think the peanuts are cooked.
f. Spread the hot peanuts on a clean flat board.
9.2.3 Concluding sentence
The concluding sentence usually indicates the result of the process or makes a comment of
17
the result.
Examples:
1.
When
the
peanuts
cool
down,
you
can
enjoy
wonderful
five-flavored
shelled
peanuts
cooked by yourself.
2. By following these steps, almost anyone can build a campfire successfully.
3. Industrialization is a complex technological and cultural process that shows remarkable
similarities no matter where or when it takes
place.
9.3 Samples and analyses
Sample 1
How to Cook Noodles and Egg
Even if you have never cooked before, you will never starve to death if you know how to
cook noodles and egg for one person. Begin with heating three bowls of water in a pot over
high heat. When the water begins boiling, break an egg and add in the pot. Lower the heat
and boil the egg for about two minutes. Then turn the heat high; put 100g of raw noodles
into
the
boiling
water,
and
boil
the
noodles
and
egg
for
about
three
minutes.
When
the
noodles are almost done, add some salt, ginger powder, pepper, seafood-flavored liquid, a
small amount of vinegar and some drops of sesame oil. Mix the noodles and ingredients
together. Then turn off the heat and enjoy the delicious noodles-and-egg.
七、作业、讨论题、思考题
Write a paragraph by process description
八、课后小结
:
九、参考资料
:
Cheryal Pavlik
，
《写作通》
，辽宁教育出版社，
2005
陈会军，
《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》
，外文出版社，
2004
吕煦，
《实用英语修辞》
，清华大学出版社，
2005
祁寿华，
《西方写作理论、教学与实践》
，上海教育出版社
, 2000
18
Part 6
Paragraph Unity
一、授课时间：
Mar.29- Mar.31
二、授课类型：理论课
三
、授课题目：
paragraph unity
四、教学目的和要求：
To know how to write the unified paragraphs
五．教学重点及难点：
The ways to check paragraph unity
六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤
讲授法、讨论法、师生互动
Step I
Greetings
Step II
Check of homework
Step III Presentation
Focus:
Unity of a paragraph
Cases of broken unity
a.
All the sentences in the development do not support the topic or the controlling idea
b.
Part of the development does not support the topic or the controlling idea.
c.
Some individual sentences do not support the topic or the controlling idea.
Writing an outline is a good way to check the unity of a paragraph
3.1 Unity of a paragraph
A paragraph is a unit of thought. Unity is a basic quality of a well written paragraph. That
is
,
a
paragraph
states
a
single
thought,
and
thus
it
should
present
only
one
topic
and
develop
one
controlling
idea.
All
the
details,
facts,
examples,
and
reasons
in
a
unified
paragraph
should
support
this
topic
and
controlling
idea.
When
the
writer
wants
to
introduce a new thought or topic, he should begin a new paragraph.
The following is a very good example of a unified paragraph.
Since the industrial revolution, work has been rearranged and much of the satisfaction has
been rationalized out. V
ery few workers have a chance to set their own tasks. Jobs have
been
divided
and
subdivided
so
that
each
person
performs
a
single
operation
upon
a
continuous flow of parts or papers. Increasingly the worker is denied not only the chance
to set his own task but even the chance to finish the task someone else sets for him. The
jobs
are
so
fragmented
that
few
workers
can
feel
they
are
helping
to
make
a
care
or
to
issue
an
insurance
policy.
They
are
merely
repeating
the
same
few
motions,
the
same
simple calculations over and over throughout a lifetime of labor. ---author unknown
The
topic
of
the
paragraph
above
is
“work”,
and
the
controlling
idea
is
“much”
of
the
satisfactio
n has been rationalized out”. All the other sentences support this controlling idea.
3.2 Cases of broken unity
When
a
writer
expresses
unrelated
thoughts
or
when
he
shifts
the
paragraph’s
topic
in
midstream, the unity of the paragraph is destroyed.
Here are three ways in which unity is undermined:
A.
All the developmental sentences do not support the topic or the controlling idea
owing
to
the
writer’s
misunderstanding
of
the
topic.
For
example,
given
the
topic
sentence “The Miao people in Yunnan province
have interesting costumes”, if the writer
19
takes “costumes” as “customs”, there is no doubt that the writer will veer away from the
point
in
the
whole
development
part.
Thus,
none
of
the
sentences
will
actually
develop
what is supposed to be the controllin
g idea. “interesting costumes”.
B.
Part of the development does not support the topic or the controlling idea when
the writer suddenly shifts the topic in mid-steam.
Example:
We now have, as a result of
modern means of communication, hundreds of thousands of words flung at us daily. We are
constantly
being
talked
at,
by
teachers,
salesmen,
public
officials,
radio,
television.
The
cries of advertisers pursue us into our homes, thanks to the radio and television
–
and in
some houses the radio or television is never turned off from morning to night. Radio and
television are different in that radio has no pictures, but we do not have to sit before the set
all the time. We can enjoy the news and stories while we are washing the dishes. While on
television,
not
only
can
we
listen
to
whatever
is
being
broadcast,
but
also
we
can
appreciate
the
vivid,
sometimes
beautiful
pictures.
Furthermore,
we
can
go
out
and
get
more words at bookstores and libraries. Words fill our life.
This paragraph lacks unity because the wr
iter shifts from the topic “We have hundreds of
thousands of words flung at us daily” to the topic on “Radio and television are different.”
C.
Some individual sentences do not support the topic or the controlling idea.
One of
my fondest memories from childhood is fossil hunting with my father, who was a soft-rock
geologist. He worked for a large oil company off the coast of Mexico for a number of years.
I looked forward to the dismissal of school in June because I knew that in one week’
s time
my father would pack up our station wagon with our old tent, cooking gear, supplies, and
all
kinds
of
picks,
chisels,
and
shovels,
and
we
would
set
off
into
the
Sierra
Madre
Mountains for a week of unbounded pleasure. After sleeping in the tent all night and eating
a quick breakfast of hot chocolate and bread, we would set off up the mountain laden with
our picks and shovels to an outcropping that looked promising. As we chipped and scraped,
coming upon the fossils common in the area, my father explained to me how the earth was
formed and described the various geological periods the earth had gone through. Actually,
the earth has gone through four major eras. To this day I remember with pleasure the cool
starry
nights,
the
worm
days,
and
my
father’
s
present
but
unspoken
love.
–
another
unknown
In this paragraph, two sentences break the unity. The first
sentence is
“He worked for a
large oil company off the coast of Mexico for a number of years”. Although this sentence
does not directly support the topic sentence, it does provide useful information about the
father’s profession, which makes “fossil hunting” less surprising. Thus, a good way to keep
this information in the paragraph is to make the information subordinate, e.g. by using a
relative clause as in “…a geologist who worked for…” or to make it coordinate with the
attributive clause, as in “… a geologist and worked for…”.
The second unrelated sentence is “Actually, the earth has gone through four major eras.”
There are two ways to correct this problem.
a. If the writer, upon reflection, decides that the information is not really important, he can
simply eliminate it.
b.
If the information has some relation to the topic but is not an important idea, the writer
has to make the idea subordinate. In this case, he can put this sentence in parentheses after
naming gout the four eras, so as to make the sentence additional information.
3.3 Writing an outline is a good way to check the unity of a paragraph
20
A good way to check whether all the ideas support the topic sentence is to write an outline
of the paragraph, and then examine each idea to make sure all of them support your topic
sentence.
Example:
drug
use
is
so
widespread
in
American
society
that
it
is
part
of
the
daily life of almost every person. From birth through li
fe’
s ailments to death, drugs ease
our
pain
and
suffering.
For
many,
dugs
serve
such
utilitarian
purposes
as
keeping
us
awake,
helping
us
sleep,
or
eliminating
our
stress.
Recreational
drugs
increase
our
pleasure
or
sociability
at
festive
or
informal
gatherings.
We
take
our
drugs
routinely
without thinking of them as drugs, such as when we smoke cigarettes or drink caffeinated
beverages.
Harmful
drugs
are
extremely
expensive
for
the
average
person,
and
drug
addicts are disastrous examples of how taking harmful drugs can ruin lives.
The outline of this paragraph looks like the following:
Topic sentence: Drug use is so widespread in American society that it is part of the daily
life of almost every person.
1.
From
birth
through
life’s
a
ilments
to
death,
drugs
ease
our
pain
and
suffering.
2.
For
many,
dugs
serve
such
utilitarian
purposes
as
keeping
us
awake,
helping us sleep, or eliminating our stress.
3.
Recreational
drugs
increase
our
pleasure
or
sociability
at
festive
or
informal gathering.
a. We take our drugs routinely without thinking of them as drugs, such as when we smoke
cigarettes or drink caffeinated beverages.
4.
Harmful drugs are extremely expensive for the average person, and drug
addicts are disastrous examples of how taking harmful drugs can ruin lives.
From the outline, we can easily see that the writer shifts the topic in the last sentence. In
other words, the last sentence does not support the topic sentence. It breaks the unity of the
paragraph. To develop the idea, the writer should start a new paragraph. Therefore, writing
an outline is a good way to see if all the sentences in a paragraph support the topic and the
controlling idea.
七、作业、讨论题、思考题
To discuss what the paragraph unity is?
八、课后小结
:
九、参考资料
:
Cheryal Pavlik
，
《写作通》
，辽宁教育出版社，
2005
陈会军，
《中国人英语写作全攻略技巧与训练》
，外文出版社，
2004
吕煦，
《实用英语修辞》
，清华大学出版社，
2005
祁寿华，
《西方写作理论、教学与实践》
，上海教育出版社
, 2000
祁寿华，
《高级英语写作指南》
，上海外语教育出版社，
2001
叶云屏，
《英语写作模式》
，北京理工大学出版社，
2005
21
Part 7
Paragraph Coherence
一、授课时间：
Apr. 5- Apr. 7
二、授课类型：理论课
三
、授课题目：
paragraph coherence
四、教学目的和要求：
To make the students grasp some techniques to achieve coherence
五．教学重点及难点：
The use of techniques to achieve coherence
六、教学方法、基本内容与步骤
讲授法、讨论法、师生互动
Step I
Greetings
Step II
Discussion
Step III Presentation
Focus:
Coherence
is
a
basic
quality
of
good
writing.
Techniques
used
to
achieve
coherence
include:
Effective organization of supporting ideas
In order of importance (from the most important to the least important, or vice versa)
In chronological order
In spatial order
In a logical pattern (from specific facts to a generalization, or vice versa)
Linguistic techniques
Using transitional expressions
Repeating key words; using relationships between words
Using parallel structures
Using pronouns
Being consistent
A comparison with the cohesive techniques in Chinese writing
4.1 Effective organization of supporting ideas
Like unity, coherence is a basic requirement of an effective paragraph. the coherence of a
paragraph is about its organization. The sentences in a paragraph should be arranged in a
clear,
logical
order,
and
the
transitions
should
be
smooth
and
natural
so
that
the
reader
finds
it
easy
to
follow
the
writer’s
train
of
thought.
We
can
use
various
techniques
to
achieve this purpose.
Vital for achieving coherence in a paragraph is a good clearly phrased topic sentence that
ties all the supporting ideas together. The supporting ideas can be arranged in the following
ways:
In order of importance
In some time-related order
In an order dictated by space or physical position
In a specific logical order
Example:
a. whether you do or not open a gift in the presence of the giver, whether you should or
should not turn the plate over to look at the maker’s symbol on the back, whethe
r you put
22
-
-
-
-
-
-
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