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1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the
scientific study of language
.
It
is
a
scientific
study
because
it
(a)
is
based
on
the
systematic
investigation
of
linguistic
data.
It
(b)
discovers
the
nature
and
rules
of
the
underlying
language
system.
It
(c)
collects
language
facts
that
display
some
similarities,
and
generalizations are made about them.
The study of language as a whole if often called
general linguistics
.
phonetics(
语音学
): the study of sounds
phonology(
音位学
): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning
morphology(
形态学
):
how
morphemes(
词素
)
are
arranged
and
combined
to
form
words
syntax(
句法学
):
the
study
of
rules
that
govern
the
combination
of
words
to
form
grammatically permissible sentences
semantics(
语义学
): the study of meaning
pragmatics(
语用学
): the study of meaning in the context of language use
interdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(
社会语言学
), psycholinguistics(
心理语言学
),
applied linguistics(
应用语言学
)
Important distinctions in linguistics
prescriptive(
规定性
old linguistics) vs. descriptive(
描述性
modern linguistics)
synchronic(
共时性
) vs. diachronic(
历时性
): most linguistic studies are of synchronic
descriptions, which is prior in modern linguistics
speech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguistics
langue(
语言系统
abstract
linguistic
system)
and
parole(
话语
/
言语
realization
of
langue
in
actual
use):
Swiss
linguist
F.
de
Saussure---- forefather
of
modern
linguistics
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competence(
语
言
能
力
ideal
user
’
s
knowledge
of
rules
of
his
language)
and
performance(
语言运用
actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N.
Chomsky
traditional
grammar
and
modern
linguistics:
Saussure
’
s
book
“
Course
in
General Linguistics
”
marked the beginning of modern linguistics
1.2 Language is a
system
of
arbitrary
vocal
symbols used for human communication.
LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----Chomsky
Arbitrariness (
任意性
): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different
languages.
Productivity/creativity
(
能产性
):
Construction
and
interpretation
of
new
signals
are
possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.
Duality
(
双
层
性
):
Two
levels
enable
people
to
talk
about
anything
within
their
knowledge.
lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)
Displacement(
移位性
): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from
barriers caused by separation in time or place.
Cultural transmission(
文化传承
): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the
details of language system have to be taught and learned.
2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech is
more basic/primary.
The
sounds
which
are
produced
by
humans
through
their
speech
organs
and
meaningful
in
communication
constitute
the
phonic
medium
of
language.
The
individual sounds within this range are the
speech sounds.
2.2
Phonetics
is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all the
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sounds that occur in the world
’
s languages.
articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phonetics
Speech organs:
pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity ---mouth; nasal cavity---nose
IPA:
国际音标
diacritics:
变音符
broad transcription:
宽式标音
(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)
narrow transcription:
严式标音
(used by phoneticians in their study)
vowels
(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)
stops(
塞音
), fricatives(
擦音
), affricates(
塞擦音
), liquids(
流音
), nasals, glides, bilabial(
双
唇音
),
laviodental(
唇齿音
),
dental(
齿音
),
alveolar(
齿龈音
),
palatal(
腭音
),
velar(
软腭音
),
glottal(
喉音
)
close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)
unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)
long/tense vowels----short/lax vowels
monophthongs(
单元音
), diphthongs(
双元音
) (single or combined)
2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.
phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaning
concerned with sound system of a particular language
phonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech sounds
A phone(
音素
) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)
a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning
A phoneme(
音位
) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)
not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context
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The
different
phones
which
can
represent
a
phoneme
in
different
phonetic
environments are called the allophones(
音位变体
) of that phoneme.
Rules in phonology:
Sequential
rules(
序列规则
)---rules
that
govern
the
combination
of
sounds
in
a
particular language.
Assimilation rule(
同化规则
)---assimilates one sound to another by
“
copying
”
a
feature
of
a
sequential
phoneme,
thus
making
the
two
phones
similar.
for
ease of articulation(
清晰发音
) e.g. green, scream
Deletion rule(
省略规则
)---e.g. desi
g
nation
Suprasegmental features(
超切分特征
): the phonemic features that occur above the level
of the segments.
stress(
重音
)---word stress and sentence stress
The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.
E.g.
‘
import (n.)
im
’
port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird
tone(
语调
)---pitch variation(
音高变体
)
distinguish meaning E.g.
汉语四声
Intonation(
音调
)---English
tones:
falling
tone,
rising
tone,
fall-rise
tone,
rise-fall
tone
E.g. That
’
s not the book he wants.
3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of
words
, and rules by which words are
formed
3.2
open
class
words(
开放类
):
new
words
can
be
added
—
nouns,
verbs,
adjective
and
adverbs
closed class words(
封闭类
):
“
grammatical
”
or
“
functional
”
words
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3.3
Word is the smallest free form found in language.
Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.
Free and bound morphemes(
自由词素
can be a word by itself
粘着词素
must be attached
to another one---affix)
3.4
V----teach
N
Af----er
3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(
派生词素和屈折词素
)
Free morphemes
Bound morphemes
Root
Root
Affix
dog, cat
-ceive
Prefix
Suffix
grammar
-vert
Derivational
Derivational
Inflectional
…
-mit
un-, dis-
-ment
-s, -ing, -
‘
s, -er
3.6
Morphological
rules
determine
how
morphemes
combine
to
form
words.
E.g.
un-accept-able
3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweet
Word Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening
4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a
particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
Syntactic categories
—
word-level categories:
major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built)
---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)
minor
lexical
categories---Determiner
(Det)
Degree
words
(Deg)
Qualifier
(Qual)
Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con)
Three
criteria(
条件
)
determining
a
word
’
s
category:
meaning,
inflection
(
变形
)
and
distribution (
分布
)
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A word
’
s category can be determined only by all three criteria.
Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.
noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)
phrases
that
are
formed
of
more
than
one
word
usually
contain :
head,
specifier,
complement
4.3
Phrase
structure
rule---special
type
of
grammatical
mechanism
regulating
the
arrangement of elements that make up a phrase
NP
→
(Det) N (PP)
an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complement
VP
→
(Qual) V (NP)
a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complement
AP
→
(Deg) A (PP)
……
PP
→
(Deg) P (NP)
……
XP rule: XP
→
(specifier) X (complement)
Coordination rule:
coordinate structures (consist a conjunction
“
and
”
/
”
or
”
)
X
→
X *Con X
Either an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to the left
of the Con.
4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiers
specifiers
determiner
qualifier
degree word
heads
N
V
A / P
complementizers (Cs)
—
words introducing the sentence complement
complement
clause
—
sentence
introduced
by
the
complementizer
complement
phrase(CP)
matrix clause
—
construction in which the CP embeded
嵌入
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As, Ns, Ps can all take CP.
Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware
Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, about
modifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.
AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very
careful
girl
PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g.
open
with
care
AdvP(+Vs):
precedes
or
follows
the
head
e.g.
read
carefully/carefully read
The Expanded XP rule:
XP
→
(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)
4.5 The S rule: S
→
NP VP ------
Inflp (=S)
→
NP Infl VP
------Infl can be taken by an abstract
category encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(
助动词
)
4.6 Transformation
a special rule that can move an element from one position to another
auxiliary movement(
助动词移位
) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.
within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion:
move Infl to C.
P53 Figure 4-8
do insertion(
插入
): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to
C.
deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?
Deep:
S
Surface:
Will the train ____ arrive?
NP
VP
Det
N
Infl
V
the
train
will
arrive
The XP rule
→
D structure
→
transformations
→
S structure
wh
movement:
move
the
wh
phrase
to
the
beginning
of
the
sentence/
the
specifier
position under CP
P57 Figure 4-16
P58 Figure 4-18
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move
α
and constraints on transformations
move
α
:
general
rule
for
all
the
movement
rules
α
:
any
element
that
can
be
moved
limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position
no element may be removed from a coordinate structure
5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)
5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they
stand for.
The limitations of this theory are obvious. There
’
s verbs, adjectives, etc. and also
abstract nouns.
The
conceptualist
view:
Words
and
things
are
related
through
the
mediation
of
concepts in the mind.
Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.
Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker
utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.
5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning,
which are related but different aspects of meaning.
Sense: e.g.
“
dog
”
---a domesticated mammal...
refer to any animal that meets the
features described
Reference:
“
dog
”
---A
said
to
B:
”
The
dog
’
s
barking.
”
refer
to
a
certain
dog
known to both A&B
Major sense relations:
synonymy---words that are close in meaning
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dialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE),
stylistic syn.(daddy & father),
syn.
that
differ
in
emotive
or
evaluative
meaning(same
meaning,
different
emotions)
collocational syn.(different usage),
semantically different syn.(differ slightly
in meaning)
polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)
homonymy
(homophones---
two
words
same
in
sound,
homographs---same
in
spelling,
complete homonyms--- same in both sound and spelling)
hyponymy(relation
between
a
general
word
—
superordinate,
and
a
specific
word--hyponyms)
antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)
gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold
complementary ant.--- e.g. male vs. female
relational ant.--- e.g. husband vs. wife
5.4 Sense relations between sentences:
X is synonymous with Y.
E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never married
…
.
X, True
—
Y, True; X, False---Y False
X is inconsistent with Y.
E.g. John
’
s married. / John
’
s a bachelor.
X, T
—
Y, F;
X, F
—
Y, T
X entails Y.
E.g. He
’
s been to France. / He
’
s been to Europe.
X, T
—
Y, T; X,
F
—
Y, may be T or F
X presupposes Y.
E.g. John
’
s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike.
X, T
—
Y,
T; X, F
—
Y, T
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X is a contradiction.
E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor.
X is always
false.
X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)
5.5
componential
analysis----lexical
meaning
E.g.
man---+HUMAN,
+ADULT,
+ANIMATE, +MALE
predication(
谓项
)
analysis--- sentence
meaning
E.g.
The
kids
like
apples.
---KID,
APPLE (LIKE)
Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE)
It is hot. --- (BE HOT)
6.1
Pragmatics
studies
how
speakers
of
a
language
use
sentences
to
effect
successful
communication (meaning in a certain context).
Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaning
Utterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation
of communication or context, it is context-dependent.
6.2 Speech act theory: aim to
answer “What
do we do when using language?
”
----John
Austin in late 1950s
locutionary act(
言内行为—字面意思
), illocutionary act(
言外行为—目的
), perlocutionary act(
言后
行为—结果
)
John Searle:
classification of illocutionary acts
---five general types of things we do with
language
Specific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point
1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to
be true
E.g. The earth is a globe.
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2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something
E.g. Close the door. / Will you
close the door?
3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action
E.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.
4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state
E.g. It
’
s kind of you to ... / I
’
m sorry for the mess I
’
ve made.
5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying something
E.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee.
Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech
act (means by which he achieves the goal)
----Searle
6.3 Conventional implicature(
暗示
) & nonconventional implicature-----Grice
Con. imp.
E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy.
imp. Rich people are usually greedy.
The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other.
The general principle is called the
Cooperative Principle
. (CP)
Four maxims(
准则
) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than
required),
quality
(don
’
t
say
what
you
believe
to
be
false
or
what
you
lack
adequate evidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity &
be brief and orderly)
These maxims
can
be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.)
Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic
历时的
)
Historical linguistics
phonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic change
morphological and syntactic change:
morphological:
Addition
of
affixes
(Fusion
融合
word
word---base
+suffix
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/prefix +base)
Loss of affixes--- some are via
sound
changes
syntactic: change of word order
Old English: subject-object-verb
change in negation rule
Old English: I love thee
not
.
lexical and semantic change:
lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quickly
Coinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (
缩略构词
),
Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch),
Acronyms (
首字构词
e.g. WTO),
Back-formation
(subtract
affixes
from
old
words,
e.g.
donate---from
“
donation
”
)
Functional
shift
/Conversion
(shift
without
adding
affixes,
e.g.
to
knee/cool; a reject)
Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g.
bonus
from Latin,
cycle
from Greek
…
)
Loss of words---takes place gradually over several generations
Some
words
are
short-lived
because
of
the
discontinuation
of
the
object they name.
semantic: three processes of semantic change---
semantic broadening: e.g. holiday =
holy day
in the past, but
any
rest day
today
semantic narrowing: e.g. girl =
young person of either sex
in the past
semantic shift: e.g. nice =
ignorant
a thousand years ago
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