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Interlanguage theory
Interlanguage theory
1. Behaviorist learning theory
The dominant psychological theory of the 1950s and 1960a was
behaviorist
learning
theory.
According
to
this
theory,
language learning is like any other kind of learning in that
it involves habit formation. Habits are formed when learners
respond to stimuli in the environment and subsequently have
their responses reinforced so that they are remembered. Thus,
a
habit
is
a
stimulus
—
response
connection.
Learning
took
place
when
learners
had
the
opportunity
to
practice
making
the
correct respond to a given stimulus.
It should be clear that behaviorist account of L2 acquisition
emphasize only what can be directly observed and ignore what
goes on in the
‘
black box
’
of the learner
’
s mind. Learners
frequently do not produce output that simply reproduces the
input. In short, learning is not just a response to external
stimuli.
2. A mentalist
（精神第一性论者）
theory of language learning
The obvious inadequacies of behaviorist explanations of L2
acquisition led researchers to look towards an alternative
theoretical framework. From a preoccupation with the role of
‘
nurture
’
(
养育
)
.
How
environmental
factors
shape
learning),
researchers switched their attention to
‘
nature
’
. how the
innate properties of the human mind shape learning). This new
paradigm
was,
therefore,
mentalist
(or
‘
nativist
’
)
in
orientation.
In
the
1960s
and
1970s
a
mentalist
theory
of
first
language acquisition emerged. According to this theory:
1) Only human beings are capable of learning language.
2) The human mind
is equipped with a faculty for learning
language, referred to as a Language Acquisition Device. This
is separate from the faculties responsible for other kinds of
cognitive activity.
3)
This
faculty
is
the
primary
determinant
of
language
acquisition.
4) Input is needed, but only to
‘
trigger
’
the operation of
the language acquisition device.
3.
What is
‘
interlanguage
’（中介语）
The
term
‘
interlanguage
’
was
coined
by
the
American
linguist,
Larry
Selinker
（拉里●塞林格）
，
in
recognition
of
the
fact
that
L2
learners
construct
a
linguistic
system
that
draws,
in
part,
on
the
learner
’
s
L1
but
is
also
different
from
it
and
also
from
the
target
language.
A
learner
’
s
interlanguage
is,
therefore,
a unique linguistic system.
The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises
about L2 acquisition;
1)
The
learner
constructs
a
system
of
abstract
linguistic
rules
which underlies comprehension and production of the L2. This
system of rules is viewed as a
‘
mental grammar
’（精神语法）
and is referred to as an
‘
interlanguage
’
.
2)
The
learner
’
s
grammar
is
permeable
（有渗透性的）
.
This
is,
the
grammar
is
open
to
influence
from
the
outside
.
through
the
input).
It
is
also
influenced
from
the
inside.
3)
The
learner
’
s
grammar
is
transitional.
Learners
change
their
grammar
from
one
time
to
another
by
adding
rules,
deleting
rules,
and
restructuring
the
whole
system.
This
results
in
an
interlanguage
continuum
（连续体）
.
This
is,
learners
construct
a
series
of
mental
grammars
or
interlanguages
as
they
gradually
increase the complexity of their L2 knowledge.
4) Some researchers have claimed that the systems learners
construct contain variable rules. That is, they argue that
learners are likely to have competing rules at any one stage
development.
However,
other
researchers
argue
that
interlanguage
systems
are
homogeneous
（
同
种
的
）
and
that
variability reflects the mistakes learners make when they try
to use their knowledge to communicate. These researchers see
variability
as
an
aspect
of
performance
rather
than
competence.
5)
Learners
employ
various
learning
strategies
to
develop
their
interlanguags. The
different kinds
of
errors
learners produce
reflect learning strategies.
6) The learner
’
s grammar is likely to fossilize
（僵化）
.
Selinker suggested that only about five per cent of learners
go on develop the same mental grammar as native speakers. The
majority stop some way short. Fossilization dose not occur in
L1 acquisition and thus is unique to L2 grammars.
4. A computational model
（计算模式）
of L2 acquisition
Figure 1 represents the basic computational metaphor that has
grown out of
‘
interlanguage
’
and that informs much of SLA.
The learner is exposed to input, which is processed in two
stages.
First,
parts
of
it
are
attended
to
and
take
into
short-term memory. There are referred to as intake. Second,
some of intake is stored in long-term memory as L2 knowledge.
The
processes
responsible
for
creating
intake
and
L2
knowledge
occur within the
‘
black box
’
of the learner mind where the
learner
’
s
interlanguage
is
constructed.
Finally,
L2
knowledge
is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output .
what we have called learner language).
input
→ intake → L2 knowledge → output
FIGURE1 A computational model of L2 acquisition
Social aspects of interlanguage
Right
from
the
beginning,
SLA
has
also
acknowledged
the
importance of social factors.
1. interlanguage as a stylistic continuum
（语言连续体）
Drawing on work on variability in learner language, Elaine
Tarone
（伊莱恩●塔龙）
has
proposed
that
interlanguage
involves
a
stylistic
continuum
（语体连续体）
.
She
argues
that
learners
develop a capability for using the L2 and that this underlies
‘
all
regular
language
behaviors
’
.
At
one
end
of
the
continuum
is the
careful style
（细心语体）
, evident when learners are
consciously
attending to their choice of linguistic forms, as
when they feel the need to be
‘
correct
’
. At the other end of
continuum is the
vernacular style
（随意语体）
, evident when
learners
are
making
spontaneous
choices
of
linguistic
form,
as
is likely in free conversation.
Another
theory
that
also
draws
on
the
idea
of
stylistic
variation
but
which
is
more
obviously
social
is
Howard
Giles
’
s
（霍华德●贾尔斯）
accommodation
theory
（调节理论）
.
This
seeks
explain
how
a
learner
’
s
social
group
influences
the
course
of
L2 acquisition. For Giles the key idea is that of
‘
social
accommodation
’
. He suggests that when people interact with
each
other
they
either
try
to
make
their
speech
similar
to
that
of their addressee in order to emphasize social cohesiveness
(a process of convergence
（会聚）
) or to make it
different
in
order to emphasize their social distinctiveness(a process of
divergence).
That
is,
when
the
social
conditions
are
such
that
learners
are
motivated
to
converge
on
（集中于）
native-speaker
norm. Speak like native speakers) high levels of proficiency
ensue, but when the conditions encourage learners to maintain
their
own
social
in
group
less
learning
takes
place.
According
to
Giles
’
s
theory,
then,
social
factors
influence
interlanguage
development
via
the
impact
they
have
on
the
attitudes that determine the kinds of language use learners
engage in.
2. The acculturation model
（文化适应模式）
of L2 acquisition
A
similar perspective
on the role of social factors in
L2
acquisition can be found in John Schumann
’
s
（约翰●舒曼）
acculturation model
.
Schumann investigated on a 33-year-old Spanish (Alberto) who
acquired English in the United States. Result of study: Very
little evidence of any linguistic development over 10m was
found.
When
learners
fail
to
acculturate
to
the
target-language
group,
pidginization
（洋泾滨化）
(they
are
unable
or
unwilling
to adapt to a new culture) in L2 acquisition is coming into
being.
The main reason for learners failing to acculturate is social
distance
—
social
factors
1)
to
be
socially
equal;
2)to
assimilate;
3)to
share
the
same
social
facilities
（公共设施）
.
The
minor
reason
is
psychological
distance(
心
理
距
离
)
—
psychological
factors1)
Language
shock(
语言休克
)
2)motivation.
Social
factors
in
acculturation
determine
the
amount
of
contact
with the L2 individual learners experience and determined how
successful they are in learning.
The
problems
in
acculturation
model
are
Failing
to
acknowledge
the
social
factors
are
not
fixed
and
static
（
静态的）
but
variable
and
dynamic
and
Failing
to
acknowledge
that
learners
can
be
both
the subject to social conditions and the subject of them.
3
．
Social identity and investment in L2 learning
The
notion
of
‘
subject
to
’
(
受……管制
)and
‘subject
of
’
（管
制……）
are
central
to
Bonny
Peirce’
s
（邦尼●皮尔斯）
view
of
the relationship between social context and L2 acquisition.
Learning is successful when learners are able to summon up or
construct an
identity
so that they can become the subject of
a discourse. If someone felt humiliated in the conversation
because
he
found
himself
positioned
as
a
‘
strange
man
’
,
someone
who
doesn’t
know
anything
about
the
discourse.
He
was
subject to a discourse which assumed an identity he
doesn’t
have.
Investment
is that something learners will only make if they
believe
their
efforts
will
increase
the
value
of
their
‘
cultural
capital’
（文化资本）
.
Peirce
’
s social theory of L2 acquisition
：
L2 acquisition
=
struggle
+
investment
=
engage with native speakers
+
prepare well to challenge
Successful learner
=
reflect critically
+
construct and assert social identities
Discourse aspects of interlanguage
1. Acquiring discourse rules
Discourse
rules
refer
to
the
rules
or
regularities
in
the
ways
in which native speakers hold conversations.
. A: I like your sweater.
B: It
’
s so cold. My sister bought it for me in Italy some
times ago.
L2
learners
behave
differently.
Sometimes
they
failed
to
respond to a compliment all. Like just say:
‘
thank you!
’
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