Linguistics胡壮麟语言学教程语言学复习资料

2021年1月25日发(作者：stand)
.
Chapter one

Introduction

一、定义


1.
语言学

Linguistics

Linguistics
is
generally
defined
as
the
scientific
study
of
language.

2.
普通语言学

General Linguistics

The
study
of
language
as
a
whole
is
often
called
General
linguistics.

3.
语言

language
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human
communication.
语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。


4.
识别特征

Design Features

It
refers
to
the
defining
properties
of
human
language
that
distinguish it from any animal system of communication.
语言识别特
征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness
任意性

Productivity
多产性

（创造性）

Duality
双
重性

Displacement
移位性

Cultural transmission
文化传递


5.
语言能力

Competence
（抽象）


Competence
is
the
ideal
user
’
s
knowledge
of
the
rules
of
his
language.

6.
语言运用

performance
（具体）


.
.
Performance
is
the
actual
realization
of
this
knowledge
in
linguistic
communication.
语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的
具体体现。

7.
历时语言学

Diachronic linguistics

The study of language change through time. A diachronic study
of
language
is
a
historical
study,
which
studies
the
historical
development of language over a period of time.

8.
共时语言学

Synchronical linguistics

The study of a given language at a given time.

9.
语言

langue
（抽象）


The abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech
community.

10.
言语

parole
（具体）


The realization of langue in actual use.

11.
规定性

Prescriptive
It aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what
they should say and what should not say.

12.
描述性

Descriptive

A
linguistic
study
describes
and
analyzes
the
language
people
actually use.

二、知识点


.
.
1. Language is not an isolated phenomenon, it
’
s a social activity
carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.

语言不是一种孤立的现象，
而是人类在一定的社会环 境下进行的
一种社会活动。


2.
几种观点和现象的提出者：

⑴

瑞士语言学家

Saussure: Langue
和

parole
的区别


⑵
美
国
语
言
学
家
y:
in
1950
针
对

Saussure
’
s
langue&parole
提出

Competence
和

Performance.
⑶曾经对语言概念下过定义的语言学家


Sapir--- language is a purely human and non-instinctive method
of
communication
ideas,
emotions
and
desires
by
means
of
voluntarily produced symbols.

Hall----language
is
the
institution
whereby
humans
communicate
and
interact
with
each
other
by
means
of
habitually
used oral-auditory arbitrary symbols.

Chomsky---from now on I will consider language to be a set of
sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of
elements.

⑷
美
国
语
言学
家

Charles
Hockett:
提
出
了
语
言的
识别
特
征

design features
.
.
3. The word
“
language
”
preceded by the zero- article, it implies
that linguistics studies not any particular language. Language
一词前
不加冠词说明语言学家不只研究一种特定的语言。


4.
In
order
to
discover
the
nature
of
the
underlying
language
system, what the linguists has to do first if to study language facts.

5. Language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facts,
so it's hardly possible for the linguistics to deal with it all at once.

6. First drew the attention of the linguists were the sounds used
in languages.
最先引起语言学家注意的是语言的发音。


三、问答题


1.
What
are
major
branches
of
linguistics?
What
does
each
study?
Phonetics----it
’
s defined as the study of the phonic medium of
language, it
’
s concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world
’
s
languages.

Phonology---the
study
of
sounds
systems
—
the
inventory
of
distinctive
sounds
that
occur
in
a
language
and
the
patterns
into
which they fall.

Morphology---It
’
s
a
branch
of
a
grammar
which
studies
the
internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

Syntax -------it
’
s
a
subfield
of
linguistics
that
studies
the
sentence structure of a language.

.
.
Semantics---It
’
s
simply
defined
as
the
study
of
meaning
in
abstraction.

Pragmatics---the study of meaning in context of words.
Sociolinguistics---the
study
of
language
with
reference
to
society.
Psycholinguistics---the study of language with reference to the
working of the mind.

Applied linguistics---the application of linguistic principles and
theories to language teaching and learning.

2. Why do we say language is arbitrary?

Language
is
arbitrary
in
the
sense
that
there
is
no
intrinsic
connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to
which
these
sounds
refer.
The
fact
that
different
languages
have
different
words
for
the
same
object
is
a
good
illustration
of
the
arbitrary
nature
of
language,
it
’
s
only
our
tacit
agreement
of
utterance and concept at work and not any innate relationship bound
up in the utterance. A typical example to illustrate the
‘
arbitrariness
’

of language is
“
a rose by any other name would smell as sweet
”
.

3.
What
makes
modern
linguistics
different
from
traditional
grammar?
Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on
authentic
and
mainly
spoken
language
date.
现代语言学是描述性
.
.
的，

其研究以确实可靠的、

主要以口语形式的资料为基础。

Traditional
grammar
is
prescriptive.
It
is
based
on
‘
high
’

written
language.
传统语法是规定性的，研究
‘
高级
’
书面语。


4. is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? Why?

Modern
linguistics
is
mainly
synchronic,
focusing
on
the
present-day
language.
Unless
the
various
states
of
a
language
are
successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from
a diachronic point of view.
现代语言学主要是共时性的，

重点研究
现代语言。

除非对语言的各种状态都进行成功的研究，

否则很难从
历时性角度对语言进行描述。


5.
Which
enjoys
priority
in
modern
linguistics,
speech
or
writings?
Speech
enjoys
priority
in
modern
linguistics
for
the
following
reasons:
⑴
Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.
⑵
A large
amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing.
⑶

Speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.

6.
How
is
Saussure
’
s
distinction
between
langue
and
parole
similar to Chomsky
’
s?

Both Saussure and Chomsky
make the distinction between the
abstract
language
system
and
the
actual
use
of
language.
Their
purpose is to single out the language system for serious study. The
two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of
.
.
language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of
view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.

7. The distinction between langue and parole?

⑴

Langue
is
abstract,
relatively
stable
⑵

parole
is
concrete,
varies from person to person, from situation to situation.

Chapter Two



Phonology
一、定义


1.
宽式音标

Broad transcription

The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.

2.
窄式音标

Narrow transcription

The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the
diacritics.

3.
清音

Voiceless

When
the
vocal
cords
are
drawn
wide
apart,
letting
air
go
through
without
causing
vibration,
the
sounds
produced
in
such
a
condition are called voiceless sounds.

4.
浊音

Voicing

Sounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called
voiced sounds.

5.
元音

Vowel

.
.
The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very
close
together
and
the
air
stream
passes
through
the
vocal
tract
without obstruction are called vowels.

6.
辅音

Consonants

The sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of
the air stream at some point of the vocal tract are called consonants.

7.
音位

Phoneme

The
basic
unit
in
phonology,
it
’
s
a
collection
of
distinctive
phonetic features.

8.
音位变体

Allophones

Different
phones
which
can
represent
a
phoneme
in
different
environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.



9.
音素

phone

A phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish
meaning, it
’
s a speech sound we use when speaking a language.



10.
最小对立对

Minimal pair

When two different forms are identical in every way except for
one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the
two words are said to form a minimal pair.


11.
超切分特征

Suprasegmental features

.
.

The
phonemic
features
that
occur
above
the
level
of
the
are
called
suprasegmental
features.
The
main
segment
suprasegmental features include stress, intonation and tone.


12.
互补分布

complementary distribution


Two
allophones
of
the
same
phoneme
are
said
to
be
in
complementary distribution.

13.
语言的语音媒介

Phonic medium of language

The
limited
range
of
sounds
which
are
meaningful
in
human
communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic
medium of language.
在人类交际中有着一定意义、对语言学研究来
说举足轻重。有限的声音是语音媒介。


14.
爆破音

stops

When
a
obstruction
created
by
the
speech
organs
is
total
or
complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released
and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive. they are[b]
[p] [t] [d] [k] [g]

二、知识点


1. Statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there
have
been
over
5,000languages
in
the
world,
about
two
thirds
of
which have not had written form.

2.
Of
the
two
media
of
language,
speech
is
more
basic
than
writing.
.
.
ic
组成


⑴

Articulatory
phonetics
发
音
语
音
学

longest
established,
mostly
developed
⑵
Auditory
phonetics
听觉语音学

⑶
Acoustic
phonetics
声学语音学


4.

Articulatory Apparatus /Organs of Speech

Pharyngeal
cavity
–

咽腔

Oral
cavity
–

口腔

greatest
source
of
modification of air stream found here Nasal cavity
–

鼻腔


5. The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties
of articulation than any other, the extreme back of the tongue can be
raised towards the uvula and a speech sound can be thus produced
as is used in Arabic and French.

6. Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar
area
results
in
the
pronunciation
of
[k]
and
[g],
the
narrowing
of
space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue leads to
the sound[j]; the obstruction created between the tip of the tongue
and the alveolar ridge results in the sounds[t]and[d].

7. Nasal consonants: [m] / [n] / [
η
]

8. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.

tial rules
例子

If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a
word, the combination should obey the following three rules:
⑴
the
.
.
first phoneme must be /s/
⑵
the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/
or /k/
⑶
the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w

10. English has four basic types of intonation:
Falling tone; Rising tone; Fall-rise tone; Rise-fall tone

三、问答题


1.
What
are
the
three
branches
of
phonetics?
How
do
they
contribute to the study of speech sound?

Articulatory
—
describes
the
way
our
speech
organs
work
to
produce
the speech
sounds and
how
they
differ.
Auditory-
–
studies
the
physical
properties
of
speech
sounds,
reaches
the
important
conclusion
that
phonetic
identity
is
only
a
theoretical
ideal.
Acoustic-
–
studies the physical properties of speech sounds, the way
sound travel from the speaker to the hearer.
发音语音学描述了我们
的发音器官如何发出语音，以及这些语音为何有所不同。
听觉语音
学研究语音的物理性质，
得出了重要结论，
即语音同一只是理论上的理想。

声学语音学研究语音的物理性质，研究语音从说话者到听话
者之间的传播方式。


2. How are the English consonants classified?

By place of articulation and by manner of articulation

3. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study?
Who do you think will be more interested in the different between
say[i]and[i],[p] and[ph],a phonetician or a philologist? Why?

.
.
语音学和音位学的研究中 心有何不同
?
语音学家和音位学家哪一
个更关心清晰音的区别
?
为什 么
?

Phonetics---description
of
all
speech
sounds
and
their
find
differences. Phonology---description of sound systems of particular
languages
and
how
sounds
function
to
distinguish
meaning.
A
phonetician
would be
more
interested
in
such
differences
cos such
differences will not cos

4. What
’
s a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are
allophones related to a phoneme?

Phone---a
speech
sound,
a
phonetic
unit.
Phoneme---a
collection
of
abstract
sound
features,
a
phonological
unit.
Allophones---actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic
contexts.

5. What is a minimal pair and a minimal set? Why is it important
to identify the minimal set in a language?
Minimal
pair
—
two
sound
combinations
identical
in
every
way
except in one sound element that occurs in the same position.
除了
出现在同一位 置的一个语音成分不同外
,
其他部分都一样的两个语音
组合
. Minimal set
—
a group of sound combinations with the above
feature.
一组具有上述特征的语音组合
.
By
identifying
the
minimal
pair
or
the
minimal
set
of
a
language,
a
philologist
can
identify
its
.
.
phonemes.
通过分析一种语言的最小对立对或最小对立组
,
音位学家
能辨别出它的音位
.

6.
Explain
with
examples
how
broad
transcription
and
narrow
one transcription differ?

Broad
transcription
—
one
letter
symbol
for
one
sound.
Narrow
transcription
—
diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show
the finer differences between sounds.

7.
Explain
the
sequential
rule,
the
assimilation
rule
and
the
deletion rule.

序列规则

Sequential rules

Rules
that
govern
the
combination
of
sounds
in
a
particular
language.
同化规则

Assimilation rules

The
assimilation
rule
assimilates
one
sound
to
another
by
‘
copying
’

a
feature
of
a
sequential
phoneme,
thus
making
the
two
phones similar.
省略规则

Deletion rule

It
’
s
a
phonological
rule
which
tells
us
when
a
sound
is
to
be
deleted although it
’
s orthographically represented.




Chapter Three Morphology

一、定义


1.
词素

Morpheme

The
basic
unit
in
the
study
of
morphology
and
the
smallest
meaningful unit of language.

.
.
2.
自由词素

Free Morpheme

Free morphemes are independent units of meaning and can be
used freely all by themselves.

3.
黏着词素

Bound morphemes

Bound morphemes are these morphemes that cannot be used
by
themselves,
must
be
combined
with
other
morphemes
to
form
words that can be used independently.

4.
词根

Root

Root
is
the
base
form
of
a
word
which
cannot
be
further
analyzed without total loss of identity.

5.
词缀

Affix

The
collective
term for
the
type
of
formative
that
can
be used
only when added to another morpheme.

6.
曲折词缀

inflectional affixes

The
manifestation
of
grammatical
relationships
through
the
addition
of
inflectional
affixes,
such
as
number,
tense,
degree
and
case.

7.
派生词缀

Derivational affixes

The manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through
the addition of derivational affixes.

8.
词干

Stem

.
.
A stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be
added. A stem can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived
form itself.
9.
形态学规则

Morphological rules

They are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type
of stem to form a new word.

10.
前缀

Prefix
Prefixes
modify
the
meaning
of
the
stem,
but
usually
do
not
change the part of speech of the original word, exceptions are
the
prefixes
‘
be-
’
and
‘
en (m)-
’


11.
后缀

Suffix

Suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning
of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.

In
using
the
morphological
rules,
we
must
guard
against
Over-generalization.

12. Compound

Features:
⑴

orthographically,
a
compound
can
be
written
as
one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between.
⑵

syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by
the
last
element.
⑶
semantically,
the
meaning
of
a
compound
is
idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its component.

.
.
Chapter Four





Syntax

一、定义


1.
句子

sentence

A structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number
of words to form a complete statement, question or command.

2.
语言运用

Linguistic competence

The
system
of
internalized
linguistic
knowledge
of
a
language
speaker.

3.
谓语

Predicate
The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb
phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically
called predicate.
4.
定式子句

Finite Clause

A clause that takes a subject and a finite verb, and at the same
time stands structurally alone.

5.
从属子句

Embedded Clause (E C)

In a complete sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause
is normally called an E C .

6.
主要子句

Matrix Clause

In a complex sentence, the clause into which it is embedded is
called a matrix clause.

.
.
7.
层次结构

Hierarchical structure

The
sentence
structure
that
groups
words
into
structural
constituents
and
shows
the
syntactic
categories
of
each
structural
constituent, such as NP and VP.

8.
语法关系

Grammatical relations

The
structural
and
logical
functional
relations
between
every
noun phrase and sentence.

9.
句法类型

Syntactic category

A
word
or
phrase
that
performs
a
particular
grammatical
function such as the subject or object.

10.
表层结构

S-structure

A
level
of
syntactic
representation
after
the
operation
of
necessary syntactic movement.

11.
深层结构

D-structure

A
level
of
syntactic
representation
before
the
operation
of
necessary syntactic movement.

12.
普遍语法

General grammar

A system of linguistic knowledge which consists of some general
principles and parameters about nature language.

13.
移动
α

规则

Move
α


A general movement rule accounting for the syntactic behavior
of any constituent movement.

.
.
14.
句法移位

Syntactic movement

Syntactic movement occurs when a constituent moves out of its
original place to a new position.

15.
转换原则

Transformation rules

Syntactic
movement
is
dictated
by
rules
traditionally
called
transformational
rules,
whose
operation
may
change
the
syntactic
representation of a sentence.

二、知识点


The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, and yet
there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that
language are able to produce and comprehend.

A
finite
verb,
informally
called
the
main
verb
of
a
sentence,
expresses existence, action or occurrence which is limited by person,
number,
tense
and
mood.
一个限定动词被非正式称为句中主要动
词，表达了人称、数、时态、语气限定的存在、行动
或事件。


句子的分类

Types of sentences
Simple
sentence
简单句
---It
consists
of
a
single
clause
which
contains
a
subject
and
a
predicate
and
stands
alone
as
its
own
sentence.
coordinate
or
compound
sentence
并列句合成句
---It
contains
two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction,
such as
“
but
”
,
”
and
”
. ect.

.
.
Complex sentence
复合句
—
It contains two or more clauses, one
of which is incorporated into the other.

复
合
句
的
特
点
：

⑴

An
embedded
clause
functions
as
a
grammatical
unit
in
its
matrix
clause
⑵

Most
embedded
clauses
require an introductory word called a Subordinator, such as
“
that
”

⑶
An
embedded
clause
may
not
function
as
a
grammatically
well-formed sentence if it stands independently as a simple sentence
unless its form changes.
The hierarchical nature of sentence structure
句子结构层次特点

Sentences
are
organized
with
words
of
the
same
syntactic
category,
such
as
noun
phrase
NP
or
verb
phrase
VP,
grouped
together.

In addition to the use of structural tree diagrams, linguists may
show
the
hierarchical
structure
of
sentences
by
using
brackets
and
subscript labels.
普遍语法的广义原则

General Principles of Universal Grammar:
Case Condition
和

Adjacency Condition

格条件
---a noun phrase must have Case and Case is assigned
by V or P to the object position, or by AUX to the subject position.
名
词词组必须有格，
宾语的格是由动词或介词决定，
而 主语的格由助动
词决定。

.
.
相邻条件
—
a
case
assignor
and
a
Case
recipient
should
stay
adjacent to each other, it explains why no other phrasal category can
intervene between a verb and its direct object.
格分派者和格接受者
要相邻。
这解释了为什么任何别 的词组类不能插到动词和它的直接宾
语

之间。


Chapter 5





Semantics
一、定义


1.
命名论

The naming theory

The
naming
theory,
one
of
the
oldest
notions
concerning
meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient
Greek scholar
Plato
. According to this theory, the linguistic forms or
symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to
be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or
labels for things.

The
naming
theory
的局限性
:
⑴
It
’
s
only
applicable
to
Nouns
only.
⑵
Within the category of nouns, there are nouns which denote
things that don
’
t exist in the real world.

2.
意念论

The conceptualist view

It holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and
what
it
refers
to;
rather,
in
the
interpretation
of
meaning
they
are
linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.

3.
语境论

Conceptualism

.
.
It
’
s based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from
or
reduce
meaning
to
observable
contexts.
There
are
two
kinds
of
context: the situational and the linguistic context.

4.
行为主义论

Behaviorism

It refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language
form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it
calls
forth
in
the
hearer.
This
theory
somewhat
is
close
to
conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.

5.
意义

Sense

It
’
s concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.
It
’
s the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it
’
s
abstract
and de-contextualized.

6.
所指意义

Reference

It
means
what
a
linguistic
form
refers
to
in
the
real,
physical
world;
it
deals
with
the
relationship
between
the
linguistic
element
and the non- linguistic world of experience.

7.
同义词

Synonymy

It refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can
say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.

分类

(1)Dialectal
synonyms
—
synonyms
used
in
different
regional
dialects
Synonyms
(2)Stylistic
synonyms--- Synonyms
differing
in
.
.
style
(3)Synonyms
that
different
in
their
emotive
or
evaluative
meaning (4)Semantically different synonyms

8.
多义词

Polysemy

It
refers
to
different
words
may
have
the
same
or
similar
meaning; the same one word may have more than one meaning.

9.
同音
(
形
)
异义

Homonymy

It refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings
have
the
same
form,
i.e,
different
words
are
identical
in
sound
or
spelling, or in both.

10.
同音异形异义

Homophones

It refers to two words are identical in sound.

e.g. Rain/reign; night/knight; piece/peace; leak/leek
11.
同形异义

Homographs

It refers to two words are identical in form.
e.g. Bow v. /bow n.



tear v./ tear n




lead v./lead

12.
上下义关系

Hyponymy

It
refers
to
the
sense
relation
between
a
more
general,
more
inclusive
word
and
a
more
specific
word.
The
word
which
is
more
general
in
meaning
is
called
superordinate,
and
the
more
specific
words are called its hyponyms.

13.
反义词

Antonymy

.
.
It
’
s
the
term
used
for
oppositeness
of
meaning
on
different
dimension.

分类

(1)

Gradable antonyms
分级反义词

例子

Old
—
middle- aged
—
young; hot-warm-cold Antonym

(2)

Complementary antonyms
互补反义词


between
分类

two extremes
例子

Alive
—
dead; male
—
female;

(3)

Relational opposites
关系反义词

(
中间可以加成分，如上、中、下
)
father-son;
teacher-pupil;
doctor-patient; buy-sell; above-below
14.
成分分析法

Componential Analysis

It
’
s
a
way
proposed
by
the
structural
semanticists
to
analyze
word meaning. This approach is based upon the belief that meaning
of
a
word
can
be
dissected
into
meaning
components,
called
semantic features.

15. Predication Analysis
述谓结构分析


由

British
Linguist
G.
Leech
提出

It
’
s
a
new
approach
for
sentential
meaning
analysis.
Predication
is
usually
considered
an
important
common
category
shared
by
propositions,
questions,
commands ect.

16.
先设前提

Presupposition

.
.
It
’
s a semantic relationship or logical connection. A presupposes
B.

17.
蕴涵

Entailment

Entailment can be illustrated by the following sentences in which
sentence A entails sentence B. A: Mark married a blonde heiress. B:
Mark married a blonde.

二、知识点


views of meaning study:

The naming Theory-----
希腊

Scholar Plato

The conceptualism-----
观点代表人是

John Firth,
但

Bloomfield
阐述更有说服力


The
Conceptualist
view----Ogden
和

Richards
用

classic
semantic triangle of significance

The
Behaviorism-----
英国

Bloomfield
提出，使用了

Jack
和

Jill
故事阐明

2.
句子间的意义关系

sense relation between sentences

X is synonymous with Y.

X entails Y.

X presupposes Y.

X is a contradiction.

X is semantically anomalous.

3. Analysis of meaning
意义的分析


.
.
(1)Componential analysis
—
a way to analyze lexical meaning
对
词汇成分的分析


(2) Predication analysis
—
a way to analyze sentence meaning
对
句子意义的分析

It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists
to analyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that
the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,
called
Semantic
features.
This
is
parallel
to
the
way
a
phoneme
is
analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features.
4.
The
meaning
of
a
sentence
is
not
the
sum
total
of
the
meanings of all its components. Two aspects of Sentence meaning:
grammatical and semantic meaning.

5.
In
semantic
analysis
of
a
sentence,
the
basic
unit
is
called
predication---- Predication
is
the
abstraction
of
the
meaning
of
a
sentence. it applies to all forms of a sentence, including statements,
imperative and interrogative. Predication consists of Arguments and
Predicates.
述谓是句子基本单位，
是对句子的抽象化，
适用于 包括述
句、祈使句和疑问句。

三、问答题


1. How are sense and reference related?

Sense refers to the inherent meaning of a linguistic form, which
is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, it
’
s abstract
and de-contextualized. Reference is what a linguistic form refers to in
.
.
the
real,
physical
world;
it
is
a
matter
of
relationship
between
the
form and reality.

2. in what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of
phonemes into distinctive features?
成分分析和把音位分析为区别性
特征有何相似之处？


In
the
light
of
componential
analysis,
the
meaning
of
a
word
consists
of
a
number
of
distinctive
meaning
features,
the
analysis
breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these
different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme
is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme
can
be
broken
down
into
these
distinctive
sound
features
and
its
these sound features that distinguish different sounds.

3.
What
’
s
grammaticality?
What
might
take
a
grammatically
meaningful
sentence
semantically
meaningless?
什么是语法性？一
个语法上有意义的句子可能由于什么而不是有意义的
?

Grammaticality---the
grammatical
well- formedness
of
a
sentence.
A
sentence
may
be
well-formed
grammatically,
i.e.
it
conforms
to
the
grammatical
rules
of
the
language,
but
it
is
not
necessarily semantically well-formed, i.e. it may not make sense at all.

Chapter 6





pragmatics

.
.

一、定义


1.
语境

Context

The
notion
of
context
is
essential
to
the
pragmatic
study
of
language, it
’
s generally considered as constituted by the knowledge
shared by the speaker and the hearer.

2.
言语行为理论

Speech act theory

It
’
s an important theory in the pragmatic study of language. It
’
s
a philosophical explanation of the nature of linguistic communication.
it
aims
to
answer
the
question
‘
what
do
we
do
when
using
language?
’

The concept of causatives performatives, the locutionary
act, the illocutionary act, the perlocutionary act and the 5categories
of illocutionary act suggested and formulated by constitute
the speech act theory.
3.
叙述句

Constatives

Constatives are statements that either state or describe, and are
thus verifiable and it bearing the truth-value.
4.
行为句

Performatives

Performatives are sentences that did not state a fact or describe
a state, and are not verifiable.

5.
言行为

Locutionary Act

.
.
A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses.
It
’
s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon
and phonology.

6.
言外行为

Illcotionary Act

An
illocutionary
act
is
the
act
of
expressing
the
speaker
’
s
intention it
’
s the act performed in saying something.

六七十年代时，
美国哲学语言学家

John Searle
对言外行为分成
5
类


阐
述
性

Representatives---to
commit
the
speaker
to
something
’
s being the Case, to the truth of what has been said.
例
词
:stating, believing, swearing, hypothesizing

指令性

Directives--- are
attempts
by
the
speaker
to
get
the
hearer
to
do
something.
例
词
:
inviting,
suggesting,
requesting,
advising, warning, threatening, ordering
承诺性
Commissives---when speaking the speaker puts himself
under obligation.
例词
:promising, undertaking, vowing
、


表达类

Expressives---the
speaker
is
expressing
his
feelings
or
attitude
towards
an
existing
state
of
affairs.
例
词
:
apologizing ,thanking, congratulating

宣告类

Declarations---the successful performance of an act of
this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and
.