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Chapter I
Introduction Describing and Explaining L2
Acquisition
1.1What is second language
acquisition?
Second language refers to
any language that is learned subsequent to the
mother tongue.
1.2What are the goals of
second language?
The goals of SLA are
to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and to
explain this process and why
some
learners seem to be better at it than others.
1.3Two case studies of L2
learners
1.3.1 A case study of an adult
learner
1.3.2 A case study of two child
learners
What do these case studies
show us?
a.
They
raise
a
number
of
important
methodological
issues
relating
to
how
L2
acquisition
should be
studied
b. They raise issues relating to the
description of learner language
c.
They
point
out
some
of
the
problems
researchers
experience
in
trying
to
explain
L2
acquisition.
1.4Methodological issues
What is that needs to be described?
a. What it means to say that a learner
has acquired a feature of the target language?
b. Whether learners have acquired a
particular feature?
c. How to measure
whether acquisition has taken place?
(Learner
’
s overuse of
linguistic forms.)
1.5Issues in the
description of learner language
a.
Learners make errors of different kinds.
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b. Learners
acquired a large number of formulaic chunks, which
will influence their performance
in
communication and the fluency of their unplanned
speech.
c. Whether learners
acquire the language systematically?
1.6Issues in the explanation of L2
acquisition
Item learning: formulaic
chunks
System learning:
rules
Internal (mentalist)
account:
External account:
Chapter2 the Nature of Learner Language
2.1Errors and error analysis
2.1.1 Identifying errors
2.1.1.1 Compare the
learner
’
s language with the
normal ones.
2.1.1.2 Distinguish errors and
mistakes.
Definition:
Errors reflect gaps in a
learner
’
s knowledge
Mistakes reflect occasional lapses in
performance.
Methods:
a. Check the
consistency of learners
’
performance.
b. Ask them to correct
their own utterance.
Errors and
mistakes:
2.1.2 Describing
errors
Methods:
a.
error type oriented:
b.
error maker oriented:
Meaning:
Classifying
errors
in
these
ways
can
help
us
to
diagnose
learners
’
learning
problems at any one
stage of their development and, also to plot how
changes in error patterns
occur over
time.
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2.1.3
Explaining errors
Errors
are
systematic,
predictable,
and
some
of
them
are
universal:
(Learners
has
constructed some kind of
“
rule
”
, albeit a rule different from that of the target
language)
Eg: omission:
leave out the article
“
the
”
,
leave out the
–
s in plural
nouns
Overgeneralization error:
eated---ate
Transfer errors reflect
learners attempt to make use of their L1
knowledge.
2.1.4 Error evaluation
Types
of errors:
Global errors:
violate the whole structure of the sentence
Local errors: affect only a single
constituent in the sentence
2.2Developmental patterns
2.2.1 The early stage of L2 acquisition
Silent period:
children make no attempt to say anything to begin
with.
This period makes a preparation for
subsequent production.
Trials and errors: Mulaic chunks: they
provide learners with the means of performing
useful
language functions such as
greetings and requests.
Eg:
“
How do you
do?
”
“
My name
is___
”
Propositional
simplification: leave words out
Eg:
“
Me no
blue
”
2.2.2 The order
of acquisition
Accuracy order: there is a
definite accuracy order and that this remains more
or less the
same irrespective of the
learner
’
s mother tongues,
age, and whether or not they have receive
formal language instruction.
2.2.3 Sequence of acquisition
a.
The
acquisition
of
a
particular
grammatical
structure,
therefore,
must
be
seen
as
a
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process
involving transitional constructions.
b. Acquisition follows a U shaped
course of development.
c.
The
process
in
which
learners
reorganize
their
existing
knowledge
in
order
to
accommodate new knowledge is called
restructuring.
2.2.4 Some Implications
a.
L2
is
systematic
and
universal,
reflecting
ways
in
which
internal
cognitive
mechanisms
control
acquisition, irrespective of the personal
background of learners or the settings in which
they learn.
b. Some
linguistic features are inherently easier to learn
than others.
2.3Variability
in learner language
a. Variability is
also
systematic
, that is,
learners use their linguistic sources in
predictable ways.
b. Learners vary in
their use of the second language according to
linguistic context (George
playing football/ ..all the time)
situational context.(kids/daughter)
& psycholinguistic context
(prepared/unprepared)
c. form-function
mapping
d. free variation:
e. fossilization:
石化成因
任何现象的出现都不是偶然
的
,
是可以追溯出它的原因的
,
二语习得过程中出现的中介语石化
现象也是有着根本性的原因的。
Selinker
从中介语理论的分析角度将石化现象形成的原因归
纳为五个过程
:
母语迁移、
培训转移、
二语学习策略、
二语交际策略和目的语
过度概括。
Selinker
对石化的解释更多的是石化的主要
表现
,
而没有找出石化的根本原因。
后
来
,Ellis
又对
Selinker
和
Lamendella
的研究作了如
下总结
:(1)
内因
:
年龄因素
:
即当学习者达到一定的关键期
,
他们的
大脑失去了可塑性
,
因而就无法掌握某些语言特征
;
缺乏
与目的语社会文化融合的欲望
:
由于
各
种不同的社会和心理因素
,
学习者对接受目的语文化标准不做出
努力。
(2)
外因
:
< br>交际压力
:
持续不断的交流压力要求使用目的语超出了学
习者的语言能力导致石化的发生。
缺乏学习机
会
:
学习者缺乏获得输入和使用第二语言的机会。反馈性质：对学生第二语言使用
的影响
:
肯
定的认知回馈
(
表示
“我明白你的话”
)
导致石化的发生
;
否定的回馈
(
表示
“我听不懂你的话”
)
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有助于消除石化。
应对策略
(
一
)
增加二语的输入量
大多数二语的初学者如果得不到足够的二语的陈述性知识
,
< br>就会出现语言的稳定期。所以外
语教学中
,
当学习者已经达到某种精通程度后
,
应该增加他的二
语输入量。二语的输入既要重
视数量又要重视质量。课堂教学材料要多样化
,
当前的许多教材应该编辑一系列激发二语学
习动机
的语境和篇章
,
如报刊文章、海报、广告等。学生应尽可能多利
用课外听、说、读写
资源和任何可以增加二语输入量的机会。第二语言的输入应该包括音
位知识、语法和词汇。
第二语言知识的积累还应该包括相关的文化知识输入。
对语言迁移的研究表明学习者对语言
的标志性特征比较敏感
,
所以某种语言的一般特征而不是可区别性特征更容易导致石化。这
样
,
为了避免石化
,
语言学习者需要比较母语和目的语的文化
,
找出存在于两种语言之间结构
表达上的异同来减少母语的迁移。
(
二
)
融合听
、说、读、写四种技能促进自动化和认知
以认知理论对二语学
习所做的分析为基础
,
针对我国大多数英语学习者产生石化的主
要原因，
并借鉴
Brown
的建议
,
针对中级学习者
,
我们可以适当采取综合听、说、读、写四种技巧的教
学方法
:
第一种是以内容为中心的教学
(content-based
teaching),
这种教学以教授某专业的内
容为主
,
把英语作为学习该专业的交流手段
,
学生要想学好专业课
,
必须使自己的英语在听、
说、
读、
写等方面都达到一定的水平才能取得成功
;
第二种是以主题为中
心的教学
(theme-based
teaching),<
/p>
这种教学方法围绕某一能够激发学生兴趣的主题或话题组织教学。
例如英语精读课
就可以围绕公共卫生、环境意识、世界经济等课题展开教学
,
目前在我国这种方法已被普遍
采用
,
但由于教师的准备不够
,
更
重要的是由于教材的编制不能满足或跟上实际需要
,
所以没
能达到这种方法的最佳效果
;
第三种是以任
务为中心的教学
(task-based
teaching)
,
这种方法更
注重语言在实际运用中功能的实现
,
在课堂上语言知识的输入以各种真实的资料为主
,<
/p>
如面试、
采访、公告、菜单等
,
要求学习者使用所学的英语知识在实际生活中完成某一具体任务
,
这样
就突出了语言的功能性特点。对于高级英语学习者来说
,
提供真实的语境是当务之急
,
< br>学习者
可以通过大量观看原版英文电影、
英语电视节目以
及用英语写影评、
日记等方式来弥补缺少
真实语境的不足
,
另外尽可能多地和外教或本族语是英语的外国人交流并充分利用互联
网最
大限度地使自己接触自然真实的英语语境。
Chapter 3
Interlanguage
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3.1
Behaviorist Learning Theory
Language
learning theory is like any other kind of learning
in that it involves habit formation.
But it is not adequate to adequately
account for L2 acquisition, since learners
frequently do not
produce output that
simply reproduce input.
Habit--stimulus-- response connection
3.2 A mentalist theory in language
learning
?
Main ideas of this theory
?
1. Only human beings are capable of
learning language.
?
2.
The
human
mind
is
equipped
with
a
faculty
for
learning
language→
Language
Acquisition
Device(
语言习得机制）
.
?
3. This faculty is the primary
determinant of LA.
?
4.
Input
is
needed,
but
only
to
'trigger'
the
operation
of
the
language
acquisition
device.
3.3 What
is
“
interlanguage
”
?
It refers to the
systematic knowledge of an L2 that is independent
of both the target and
the learner's
L1. .
A learner's
interlanguage is a unique linguistic system.
The premises of
interlanguage
?
1. Interlanguage is viewed
as a 'mental grammar'.
（心理语法）
?
2. The
learmer's grammar is
permeable.
（渗透性）
?
3. The
learner's grammar is
transitional.
（迁移）
?
4. The systems
learners construct contain variable
rules.
多变
?
5. Learners
employ various learning strategies to develop
their interlanguage.
（
学习策略）
?
6.
The learner's grammar is likely to
fossilize.
（石化）
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1. Mental
Grammar
?
The
learner
constructs
a
system
of
abstract
linguistic
rules
which
underlies
comprehension
and
production
of
the
L2.
This
system
of
rules
is
viewed
as
a
'mental
grammar' and is referred to as an
'interlanguage'.
2. Permeable
?
The
grammar
is
open
to
influence
from
the
outside
(i.e.
through
the
input).
It
is
also
influenced from the
inside. (on, overgeneralisation) computational
model of L2
acquisition
3.
Transitional
?
Learners change their grammar from one
time to another by adding rules, deleting rules,
and reconstructing the whole system.
?
This results in
an interlanguage
continuum(
连续体
)
eg.
Paint
→paint, painting → paint, painting,
painted
4. Variable
?
Some researchers have claimed that the
systems learners construct contain variable
rules.
That
is,
the
learners
are
likely
to
have
competing
rules
at
any
one
stage
of
development.
?
Other
researchers
argue
that
interlanguage
systems
are
homogenerous
and
that
variability reflects
the mistakes learners make when they try to use
their knowledge to
communicate.
?
ng strategies
Learners
employ
various
learning
strategies
to
develop
their
interlanguages.
The
different kinds of errors learners
produce reflect different learninf strategies.
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6. Fossilization
Selinker
suggested
that
only
about
5%
of
learners
go
on
to
develop
the
same
mental
grammar as native speakers.
3.4 Computational model of L2
acquisition
?
input→
intake
→
L2 knowledge
→output
↓
'Black box' of the learner's
mind=interlanguage constructed
Other ways to elaborate this basic
model
'Social context' added
to explain how the nature of the input varies from
one setting to another
'L2
knowledge'
broken
up
into
two
or
more
components
to
reflect
the
different
kinds
of
knowledge learners
constructs.
e.g. explicit knowledge
about language & implicit knowledge of
language(P35)
An arrow can be drawn
from 'output' to 'input'.
Chapter 4 Social aspects of
interlanguage
4.1 Interlanguage as a stylistic
continuum (
风格连续体
)
Stylistic continuum:
a. careful style
谨慎体
b. vernacular
style
通俗体
Problems: a. Learners are not always
most accurate in their careful style and least
careful in their
vernacular style.
b. the role of
social factors remains unclear.
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Accommodation theory:
How
social groups influence the courses of L2
acquisition.
(Convergence,
divergence)
4.2 The
acquisition model of L2 acquisition(
儒化模式
)
Social
distance, psychological distance, pidginization
4.3 Social identity and investment in
L2 learning
Cultural capital is needed
to invest in language learning.
Chapter 5 Discourse Aspects of
Interlanguage
5.1Acquiring discourse
rules
?
Discourse rules refer to the rules or
regularities in the ways in which native speakers
hold
conversations.
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5.2The role
of input and interaction in L2 acquisition
1. S
tephen
Krashen’s input hypothesis
?
L2 acquisition
takes place when a learner understands input that
contains grammatical
forms that are at
‘i+1’ (are a little more advanced than the current
state of the learner’s
interlanguage) .
?
L2
acquisition depends on comprehensible
input.
（可理解的语言输入
)
?
Current state:
i
next advancing state: i+1
2.
Michael
Long’s interaction
hypothesis
（互动假说）
?
Michael
Long’s
interaction
hypothesis
also
emphasizes
the
importance
of
comprehensible input but claims that it
is most effective when it is modified through the
negotiation of
meaning
（意义协商）
3.
Evelyn Hatch: Scaffolding
?
Evelyn
Hatch
emphasizes
the
collaborative
endeavors
of
the
learners
and
their
interlocutors
in
constructing
discourse
and
suggests
that
syntactic
structures
can
grow
out of
the process of building the discourse
4.
Scaffolding
（支架学习法）
Learners use the discourse to help them
produce utterances that they would
not
be able to produce on their own.
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Mark:
Come here.
Homer:
No come
here.
5.3The
role of output in L2 acquisition
?
Krashen:
Speaking
is
the
result
of
acquisition
not
its
cause.
The
only
way
learners
can
learn from their output
is by treating it as auto-input.
?
Merrill Swain:
Comprehensible output also plays a part in L2
acquisition.
?
1)
To serve a consciousness-raising function by
helping learners to notice gaps in their
interlanguages.
?
2) To test hypotheses.
?
3) To identify
problems with it and discussing ways in which they
can be put right.
Chapter 6
Psycholinguistic aspects of
interlanguage
6.1 L1Transfer
Negative transfer
Positive transfer
Avoidance
Contrastive analysis
Speech acts
Interlangage
development cannot follow a restructuring
continuum
6.2The role of consciousness
in L2 acquisition
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