-
Chapter 3
Theoretical Foundation
This
dissertation
follows
the
definition
that
culture
means
every
aspect
of
a
nation's life. Language is
the carrier of culture and idioms are the cream of
a language
and
the
concentration
and
of
a
culture.
The
translation
of
idiom
to
some
degree
is
cultural
translation.
Thus
the
features
of
culture
will
influence
the
translation
of
idioms, undoubtedly, in which the
feature of universality and peculiarity are the
basic
ones that decide the
translatability and untranslatability of idiom
translation.
the same
objective nature and the same cognition to the
whole world of human beings;
while
peculiarity comes from each small distinct
environment.
Xiao
Hui(2004)
also
holds
that
the
objective
law
of
cultural
information
is
the
Coexistence
of
culture
universality
and
peculiarity .
Cultural
universality
turns
the
possibility of
communication between different people into
reality. And the peculiarity
is the
reason of the existence of cultural barriers in
communications. When we study
the
translation
of
idioms,
cultural
communication
unavoidably
becomes
the
central
point.
This
chapter
will
focus
on
the
universality
and
peculiarity
of
culture
and
the
basic
reasons
for
the
translatability
and
untranslatability
of
idioms
in
cultural
framework,
which
will
provide
the
theoretical
foundation
for
the
studies
of
this
dissertation.
3.1 Cultural
universality in idioms
Cultural
universality means the properties common to all
cultures.
any universality between
people from other cultures, cross-culture
communication can
not be done and so
does translation.
and foundation for the
possibility of communication between different
people. Human
beings share
universalities: no matter what the nationality or
race they belong to, they
generally
possess similar physiological or psychological
structures that contribute to
the
similarity of the living habits or ideological
systems. Abundant evidence can be
found
in the languages. Even in different regions or
nations
four
major
structures:
sounds,
lexemes,
syntax,
and
discourse.
(Eugene
A.
Nida,
1993:
22) Language fulfills the same functions in all
language communities.
3.1.1 Similar
Human Physiological Structures and Cognitive
Ability
beings
live
in
the
same
material
world
and
the
languages
of
human
reflect the common
ideas. Although languages are different, people
can use the same
concepts.
Chinese
and
the
English
speakers
live
far
from
each
other,
but
they
share
the
sameness’
on
physiological
needs
and
cognitive
ability.
The
almost
identical
physiological structures are always the
determiner of some basic behaviors, including
linguistic
performances.
Human
body
is
made
up
of
various
organs,
and
they
are
always
used
as
linguistic
materials
to
invent
fresh
metaphors
to
describe
their
cognitive
experiences,
among
which
head
enjoys
the
highest
frequency
of
use
in
metaphorical
expressions;
because
of
its
predominant
position
and
the
power
the
brains
have
for
thinking.
Accordingly,
both
Chinese
and
English
endow
the
word
(head
，头
)with the
meanings of intelligence, authority, leadership
and importance. In
Chinese,
many
words
with
the
character
tou(
头
)carry
the
sense
of
command
and
priority. For
instance,
“包工头
(foreman )
“头领
(ringleader)
首领
) and
“领头军
(vanguard
army
unit)
all
have
such
connotations
as
leadership.
As
to
English,
the
word
head
also
stands
for
authority
and
significance:
head
master,
head
of
the
committee, Head of
State, the head workman, the head waiter, etc.
might have clearly
displayed
these
people's
great
influence
or
high
rank
in
charge
of
a
certain
organization.
for perceiving the outside
world and obtaining information; mostly they are
employed
to
refer
to
the
ability
to
perceive,
comprehend
or
judge,
e.g.
have
an
eye
for
something. As to
Chinese,
“眼光”
is used as well,
to designate the vision or eyesight,
and the capability to give an
insightful prediction of the future. From this
angle, eyes
have similar cultural
associations in both systems because of their
physiological and
cognitive functions.
Other organs such as hand and foot have the same
meanings in
word-formation.
dab
hand
has
the
same
meaning
with
Chinese
“好手”
.for
example
我是做糕饼的能手
)
”
.English
phrase”
old
hand”
is
equal
to
Chinese
“老手”
with
literal
correspondence
and
metaphorical
meaning as
well.”
To
bind hand and
foot
“缚住手脚”
is another example
in the
same language functions.
According to Eugene A. Nida (1993: 8),
Language are naming, modeling of
reality, expression, and cognition.
same
animal
English
say
“狗”
.In English
when somebody
wants
to express
love they
eyes
at
somebody
and in
Chinese people
`
抛媚
眼”
.
To sum up, the similar physiological
structures and cognitive ability to know the
world of human beings help people to
perceive the world with the help of the same
biological
organs
to
formulate
similar
linguistic
patterns
with
the
universal
implications.
3.1.2 Similar Natural Conditions and
Resources
Both
the
Easterners and the Westerners inhabit
the same planet.
Therefore,
the
shared
natural
conditions
on
the
planet
have
contributed
to
the
great
similarities
between
the
East
and
the
West.
Basically,
human
beings
first
of
all
depend
on
the
geological
and
meteorological
conditions
to
survive.
Consequently,
the
strong
influences of such
natural conditions have been reflected in the
making of languages.
Weather and
other meteorological phenomena are borrowed to
describe human
activities
and
lead
to
the
similarities.
The
simile
quick
as
lightning
can
be
translated
as
“快如闪电”
without semantic
alteration, since lightning is a universally
meteorological
phenomenon
that has the same characteristics that bear upon
human
cognition. The same is true in
such phrases
酷热如火
)
”
，
(
自由
如空气
)
white
as
snow(
洁白如雪
)
etc.
People
have
created
similar
expressions
to
depict
the
same
natural
phenomena
and
hereby
to
reflect
the
resembling
human
perceptions
and
actions.
There
are
many
similarities
between
languages in the way they conceptualize
the animal and plant images and invest them
with
cultural
connotations,
too.
Animals
and
plants
are
always
used
as
building
materials of metaphors in most
languages. Now let us look at the following
examples.
Bee
is
a
hard-working
and
busy
insect
and
it
carries
the
image
of
a
busy
and
industrious
man.
Thereby,
in
English
there
is
a
phrase
busy
as
a
bee
and
in
Chinese the bee has the
same connotation in the saying
“像蜜蜂一样忙碌<
/p>
(
辛勤
)
”
.In
our
mind
flower
is
a
beautiful
thing
in
the
world.
In
English
girls
are
compared
to
flower in May and in Chinese there is a
same vivid saying
“花季少女。
”
There are still
a
great
many
images
in
Chinese
and
English
which
share
similarities
in
denotation
and
connotation. For the limited space of this paper
it suffices to list but a few.
In a
word, the same living planet and the natural
resources grant human beings
from
different
counties
the
ability
to
know
each
other
on
the
basis
of
the
same
biological
and
cognitive
ability.
In
Bao
Huinan's
words,
beings
live
in
the
same world and their languages reflect
the universality; though languages are different,
they
all
can
make
use
of
the
same
concept,
inference
and
judgment,
etc.
to
name,explain, narrate and
express.
3.1.3 Cultural universality in
idioms
Idioms
are
the
embodiment
of
cream
in
language.
Both
English
and
Chinese
abound in lots of
idioms. As part of language and culture idioms
also take on features
of universality.
On the side of universality, idioms are the core
and carrier of a nation's
culture. Like
other forms of languages, they may have shared the
features of forms,
contents,
and
use
of
metaphors
etc.
The
basic
similarities
are
shown
in
forms
and
contents. In two
cultures idioms always have fixed forms and most
of them can not be
translated
literally.
Most
of
them
have
a
long
history
behind
them
and
close
connections with a
nation's culture. Different geographical
environments are reflected
in them and
the literary works have created lots of them. In
idioms the customs, habits
and thinking
modes of a nation are embedded.
Unlike
the
affinity
between
English
and
German,
English
and
Chinese
nevertheless share similarities in some
ways. In English and Chinese some idioms are
exactly the same both in forms and
meanings. They contain the same images that are
equal to each other both in designative
and associative meanings, though in different
languages. See the following examples.
fish in troubled
water-
混水摸鱼
pour
oil on fire~
火上加油
constant dropping wears the
stone~
滴水石穿
great
oaks from little acorns
grow-
合抱之木，生于毫末
In
some allusions the idioms though they are not the
same in source but they are
nearly
the
same
in
images
and
meanings
too.
For
instance,
the
proverb
Walls
have
ears came from the
over-sensitive Queen of Katherine who ordered the
establishment
of some special walls in
Louvre: the speeches in one room could be clearly
heard in
another room. Chinese has the
an equivalent
“隔墙有耳”
which
originated from the
classic works Guan
Zi(
管子
)
“隔墙有耳，
伏寇在侧’
，
.(Ji Yizhi, 1993
) Such kind of
word can be easily
translated and understood. But they are just a
small part in idioms.
3.2 Cultural
peculiarity in idioms
Cultural peculiarity in
other word means the uniqueness of culture that
differ one
from the other. Like
universality, culture peculiarity is manifested in
many ways. As
Liu
Zhongde
(1992)
pointes
that
the
small
distinct
environment
has
created
the
differences between cultures. It is
peculiarity that has made the whole world colorful
and
wonderful
simultaneously,
it
raises
the
difficulties
in
cross-culture
communication.
3.2.1 Different Geographical
Environment
embodies
distinctive
regionalism
that
each
group
of
people
creates
cultures by their own
ways.
Chinese
people
live
on
the
same
planet,
they
live
in
different
regions.
China
is
a
country
on
a
vast
continent
in
the
east
of
the
world,
while
the
Great
Britain
is
an
island
country
in
the
West.
Different
living
conditions
give
them
distinct
experiences in their understandings of
this world. In history China is a nation living
on agriculture. So its language has
close link with farming. The farming
castle
牛
are
the
best friend of Chinese.
牛
is
the symbol of strength and boldness as in the
phrases
“强壮如牛
(as strong as an
ox)
“
初生牛犊不怕虎
(new
born calves are not afraid of
tigers)
“牛饮
(drink
gallons)
On
the
other
side,
the
English
men
live
on
the
resources
from the sea for geological reasons. So their
languages would reflect their
living
features on island. For instance, they say a
people can drink a lot as
a
fish
is
to
us
what
water
is
to
fish
clear
the
decks
etc.
Still
there
are
some differences in the connotation of
the
the best season for planting that
they say
“一年之计在于春
,Also spring
implies the
good things that in many
words the meaning is contained, such
as
“春风得意”
，
“
春
风满面
”
.And many poems are written to praise spring
such as
‘春色满园关不住，
一
只红杏出墙来”
“
春眠不觉晓，
处处闻
啼鸟”
，
etc. While in Western
culture
，
summer
enjoys the same status as does spring
in China. The well-known lines of Shakespeare
can tell us the truth.
and
more temperate.
in
a
year.
But
in
China as
summer
is
the
hottest
season
in
the
four
seasons
so
it
is
always
linked with not agreeable feelings such
as
“炎炎夏日”
.
It
is
recognized
that
in
different
regions
the
same
object
has
different
associations and
the different objects can express the same
connotations. For instances,
an
apple
is
a
case
point
that
in
English
culture
this
fruit
is
used
in
the
saying
apple
of
one's
eye
while
Chinese
苹果
has
no
such
collocative
meaning.
These
differences
cause
the
difficulties
and
even
misunderstandings
in
cross-culture
communications, and the difficulties in
translation in particular.
3.2.2
Different Thinking Modes and Cognitive Angles
The different material world has given
people different experiences in knowing