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英语词汇学
1.
Word
--- A word is a minimal free form of a
language that has a gi
ven sound and
meaning and syntactic function.
2.
Vocabulary
---
Vocabulary is most commonly used to refer to the
tot
al sum of the words of a language.
It can also refer to all the word
s of a
given dialect, a given book, a given subject and
all the words
possessed by an
individual person as well as all the words current
i
n a particular period of time in
history.
The general estimate of the
present day English vocabulary is over 1
million words.
3.
argot
–
words used by sub-cultured
groups, specialized vocabulary
used by
criminals
can-opener, dip, persuader
cant, jargon , argot are associated
with, or most available to, speci
fic
groups of the population.
4.
Content word
(notional word)
–
denote clear notions and thus are k
nown
as notional words. They include nouns, verbs,
adjectives, adverb
s and numerals.
5.
Borrowed words
(loan words, borrowings)
–
words taken over from
fo
reign language are known as borrowed
words or loan words or borrowing
s in
simple terms.
6.
Semantic
loans
–
are not borrowed
with reference to the form, but
their
meaning are borrowed from another language. In
other words, Eng
lish has borrowed a new
meaning for an existing word in language.
e.
g. stupid old dump
7
.what is the importance of
basic word stock
?
The basic
word stock is the foundation of the vocabulary
accumulated
over centuries and forms
the common core of the language. five
charac
teristics: all national
character, stability , productivity,
polysemy , collocability
8.
9.
What are
neologisms
? Give one example
to illustrate it.
Neologisms are newly-created words or
expressions, or words that have
taken
on new meanings. Here is one example: E-mail:
electronic mail,
chapter 2
Three modes of
vocabulary
development
1.
Creation
–
the formation of
new words by using the existing
mater
ials, namely roots, affixes and
other elements. (This is the most
imp
ortant way of vocabulary expansion.)
2.
Semantic change
- an old form which take on a new
meaning to meet
the new need.
3.
Borrowing
–
to take in words from
other languages.(particularly i
n
earlier time)
4.
Old
English
(450-1150)
The 1st people known to inhabit England
were Celts, the language was
Celtic.
The second language was the Latin of
the Roman Legions. after the Rom
ans
After the Romans,The Germanic tribes
called angles, Saxons and Jutes
and
their language, Anglo-Saxon dominated and blotted
out the Celtic.
Now people refer to
Anglo-Saxon as old English. Old English has a
vo
cabulary of about 50,000 to
60,000words. It was a highly inflected
la
nguage just like modern German.
6.
Norman Conquest :
the Normans invaded England from France
in 1066.
the Norman Conquest started a
continual flow of French words into
Eng
lish. Norman French became the
polite speech. 75% of them are still
in use today. The situation of 3
languages (French,English,Latin)
exi
sting simultaneously continued for
over a century..
7.
Renaissance
: In
the early period of modern English, Europe saw a
ne
w upsurge of learning ancient Greek
and Roman classics. This is known
in
history as the Renaissance. Latin and Greek were
recognized as th
e language of the
Western world's great literary heritage and of
grea
t scholarship.
reviving
archaic words
: words or forms that were
once in common use
but are now
restricted only to specialized or limited use.
They are
found mainly in
older poems, legal document and religious writing
or
speech.
8.
.
Why do we say
English is a
heavy borrower and has adopted words from all
other majo
r languages of the world. It
is estimated that English borrowings
con
stitute 80% of the modern English
vocabulary. As is stated in
Encyclo
pedia Americana ,
ary
some 80% of the entries are borrowed
time no see from haojiubujian (China), the word
eant
e Norse.
9.
Modern
English(1150-1500
): Modern English
began with the establishm
ent of
printing in English. word endings were mostly lost
with just a
few exceptions. Modern
English is considered to be an analytic
langu
age.
11
12.
In the middle English
period, what made French a dominant
languag
e in England?
In
1066,
in the history of England, there
was Norman Conquest. The Fr
ench-
speaking Normans were the ruling class. French was
used for all
state affairs and for most
social and cultural matters. Therefore,
th
ose who were in power spoke French,
those who were literate read and
wrote
in French; and any young man who sought to earn
his living ascr
ibe learned Latin or
French because there was no market for such
serv
ices in English. The Norman
Conquest started a continual flow of
Fren
ch words into English.
13
.What happened in the mid-
seventeenth century in England?
England
experienced the Bourgeoisie Revolution followed by
the Indust
rial Revolution and rose to
be a great economic power.
14.
What are the three
main sources of new English
words?
Three main sources
of new words
.The rapid development of
modern science and technology
Social,
economic and political changes
.The
influence of other cultures and languages
chapter three
1.
Morpheme
--- A
morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a
langu
age. (The smallest functional unit
in the composition of words.)
2
.Morph
--- A
morpheme must be realized by discrete units. These
actua
l spoken minimal carriers of
meaning are morphs.
3.
Monomorphenic words
–
morphemes are realized by
single morphs.
4.
Allomorph<
/p>
---Some morphemes are realized by more
than one morph acco
rding to their
position. Such alternative morphs are
allomorphemes. E.
g. the morpheme of
plurality (-s) has a number of allomorphemes in
di
fferent sound context, e.g. in
cats/s/, in bags/z/, in matches/iz/.
5.
Free morphemes or Free
root
--- The morphemes have complete
meanin
g and can be used as free
grammatical units in sentences, e.g. cat,
w
alk. They are identical with root
words. morphemes which are independ
ent
of other morphemes are considered to be free.
6.
Bound Morphemes
--- The morphemes cannot occur as
separate words.
They are bound to other
morphemes to form words, e.g. recollection
(re+collect+ion) collect
–
free morpheme re-and
–
ion are bound
mo
rphemes. (include bound root and
affix) Bound morphemes are found in
derived words.
7.
Bound root
--- A bound root
is that part of the word that carries
the fundamental meaning just like a
free root. Unlike a free root, it
is a
bound form and has to combine with other morphemes
to make word
s. Take -dict- for example:
it conveys the meaning of
as a Latin
root, but not as a word. With the prefix
pre-(=before) we
obtain the verb
predict meaning
k against”. Bound roots
are either Latin or Greek.
Although they are limited in number,
their productive power is amazin
g.
8.
Affixes
---
Affixes are forms that are attached to words or
word e
lements to modify meaning or
function. Almost affixes are bound
morph
emes.
9.
Prefixes
--- Prefixes are
affixes that come before the word, such
as, pre+war, sub+sea
10
.
Suffixes
--- suffixes are affixes that come
after the word, for in
stance, blood+y.
11.
Inflectional morphemes or
Inflectional affixes
---
Affixes attach
es to the end of words to
indicate grammatical relationships are
infl
ectional, thus known as
inflectional morphemes. The number of
inflect
ional affixes is small and
stable.
12.
Derivational
morphemes or Derivational affixes
---
Derivational
affixes are affixes added
to other morphemes to create new words.
13.
Root
--- A
root is the basic form of a word, which cannot be
furt
her analyzed without total loss of
identity. (What remains of a word
after
the removal of all affixes.) .e.g.
“internationalists” removi
ng inter-,
-al-, -ist, -s, leaves the root nation.
14.
Stem
--- a
form to which affixes of any kind can be added.
E.g.
“internationalists”, nation is a
root and a stem as well.
a
stem may consist of a single root or two roots and
a root plus a af
fix.
a stem
can be a root or a form bigger than a root.
15
.
What are the
differences between inflectional and derivational
af
fixes? or How do you distinguish
inflectional affixes and derivation
al
affixes?
Affixes attaches to
the end of words to indicate grammatical
relation
ships are inflectional, thus
known as inflectional morphemes. Modern
English is an analytic language. Most
endings are lost, leaving only
a few
inflectional affixes, such as plural forms of
nouns-s(-es), and
the comparative and
superlative degree forms of adjectives: -er,
-est. Derivational affixes are affixes
added to other morphemes to cr
eate new
words. Derivational affixes can be further divided
into pref
ixes and suffixes.
16.
What are the differences
between root and stem? Explain with
exa
mples
.
A root
is the basic form of a word, which cannot be
further analyzed
without total loss of
identity.(What remains of a word after the
rem
oval of all affixes.) .e.g.
“internationalists” removing inter
-,
-a
l-, -ist, -s, leaves the root nation.
A stem is a form to which
affixes of any kind can be added. E.g.
“i
nternationalists”, nation is a root
and a s
tem as well.
a stem
may consist of a single root or two roots and a
root plus a af
fix.
a stem
can be a root or a form bigger than a root.
chapter 4
1.
Affixation
(Derivation) -- the formation of words by adding
word fo
rming or derivational affixes to
stems. (derivative
派生词
)
According to their position, affixation
falls into: prefixation and
s
uffixation.
1).
Prefixation
-- the formation of new
words by adding prefixes to s
tems. It
does not change the word-class of the stem but
change its me
aning
2).
Suffixation
--Suffixation is
the formation of new words by adding
suffixes to stems. Change the grammatical function
of stems (the wor
d class). Suffixes can
be grouped on a grammatical basis.
2.
p>
Blending
—
is the
formation of new words by combining parts of two
w
ords or a word plus a part of another
word.
3.
Conversion
(zero-derivation, functional shift) --Conversion
is the
formation of new words by
converting words of one class to another
cl
ass. These words are new only in a
grammatical sense. The most produc
tive
is between nouns and verbs. It is a change of
grammatical functi
on
5.
Clipping
–
shorten a longer word by
cutting a part of the origin a
nd using
what remains instead. People tend to be economical
in writin
g and speech to keep up the
tempo of new life style.
7.
Acronymy
–
is the process of forming
new words by joining the init
ial
letters of names of social and political
organizations or special
phrases and
technical terms
--Initialisms are words
formed from the initial letters of words and
pronounced as letters.
It’s
one of the word formations of acronymy.
--Acronyms are words formed from the
initial letters of word and pron
ounced
as words. . It’s one of the word formations of
acronymy.
8.
Back-
formation
-- is a process of word-
formation by which a word is
created by
the deletion of a supposed affix. It is considered
to be t
he opposite process of
suffixation.
Compounding
p>
(
Composition
)
--Compounding is a process of word-
format
ion by joining two or more stems.
9.
How do you distinguish
compounds from free phrases?
Compounds
differ from free phrases in the following three
aspects.
1) Phonetic features. In
compounds the word stress usually occurs on
the first element whereas in noun
phrases the second element is gener
ally
stressed if there is only one stress.
2) Semantic features. Compounds are
different from free phrases in se
mantic
unity. Every compound should express a single idea
just as one
word.
3)
Grammatical features. A compound tends to play a
single grammatica
l role in a sentence.
10.
How do you
explain the difference between backformation and
suff
ixation? Give example to illustrate
your point
.
Back-
formation is a process of word-formation by which
a word is crea
ted by the deletion of a
supposed affix. It is considered to be the
o
pposite process of suffixation. As we
know, Suffixation is the format
ion of
new words by adding suffixes to stems, and back-
formation is t
herefore the method of
creating words by removing the supposed
suffix
es. For example, -er is a noun
suffix, it is added to noun base engin
e
to produce a new word--engineer. however, people
can make verbs by
dropping the endings
such as -or in editor, and -er in bolter. This
i
s how we derive edit and bolt. The
removed suffixes are not true suff
ixes
but inseparable parts of the words.
chapter 5
1
.
Reference
–
the
relationship between language and the world. By
mea
ns of reference, a speaker indicates
which things in the world (inclu
ding
persons) are being talked about.
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