-
1.
In a
sense then this book is an invitation to
grammarians to reconsider meaning in
the clause from the perspective of
meaning in texts; and it is also an invitation to
social theorists to reconsider social
activity as meaning we negotiate through texts.
(P. 29)
2.
Grammarians
are particularly interested in types of clauses
and their elements. But
texts
are
usually
bigger
than
simple
clauses,
so
a
discourse
analyst
has
more
to
worry about than a
grammarian (expanded horizons). By the same token,
cultures
manifest
themselves
through
a
myriad
of
texts,
and
social
theorists
are
more
interested in how social contexts are
related to one another than in how they are
internally
organized
as
texts
(global
horizons).
Discourse
analysis
employs
the
tools
of
grammarians
to
identify
the
roles
of
wordings
in
passages
of
text,
and
employ
the tools of social theorists to explain why they
make the meanings they
do. (p. 32)
3.
For
us
a
genre
is
a
staged,
goal-oriented
social
process.
Social
because
we
participate in genres with other
people; goal-oriented because we use genres to get
things done; staged because it usually
takes us a few steps to reach our goals. (p.
36)
4.
in our view
ideology and power run through the whole ensemble
of language and
culture,
positioning
people
within
each
social
context
as
having
more
or
less
power, and opening or
narrowing their access to resources for meaning.
Of course,
up to a point all speakers
of a language share an equal range of meaning-
making
resources,
but
there
are
also
certain
varieties
of
meanings
that
are
not
equally
distributed.
These
include
resources
for
engaging
in
the
written
discourses
of
contemporary social institutions, such
as sciences, government and education. One
important
strand of work in
SFL has
been to
provide access
to
these discourses
through
literacy
pedagogies
grounded
in
discourse
analysis.
Another
strand
has
been
to
investigate
the
principles
by
which
access
to
meaning
is
unequally
distributed, along
the lines of generation, gender, class, incapacity
and ethnicity. (p.
44)
5.
…
amplifying attitude involves a set of resources
for adjusting how strongly we
feel
about people and things. Technically we refer to
these resources as force. We
use them
to turn the volume up or down.
Grading
experiential
boundaries
involves
resources
that
sharpen
or
blur
apparently
categorical
distinctions.
Technically
these
resources
are
referred
to
as
focus.
They
make
cut and dried distinctions negotiable. (p. 71)
6.
Summing
up
then,
what
we
have
are
three
main
appraisal
systems:
attitude,
amplification
and
source.
…
Source
covers
resources
that
introduce
additional
voices into a
discourse, via projection, modalization or
concession; the key choice
here is
one voice (monogloss) or more than one
voice
(hetergloss).
Technically,
sourcing resources are referred to as
engagement. (82)
7.
appraisal
resources
are
used
to
establish
the
tone
of
mood
of
a
passage
of
discourse, as choices resonate with one
another from one moment to another as a
text unfolds. The pattern of choices is
thus
“
prosodic
”
.
They form a prosody of
attitude running through the text that swells and
diminishes,
in
the
manner
of
a
musical
prosody.
The
prosodic
pattern
of
appraisal
choices
constructs the
“
s
tance
”
or
“
voice
”
of the
appraiser, and this stance or voice defines the
kind of community that is being set up
around shared values.
In everyday
language,
these stances are often
discussed as ranging along a scale from more
objective to more
subjective. (83)
8.
how to analyze a text from the
perspective of
ideation: representing
experience
?
Sequence of
phases
→
sequence of events within phases
→
sequence of activities and descriptions
within events
→
elements
(participants,
process
and
circumstance)
within
activities
realized
as
clauses (95-99)
9.
we
have
seen
how
a
phase
of
discourse
can
develop,
figure
by
figure,
in
two
general ways, either by
expanding as an activity sequence, or
by
expanding our
picture of
an entity. So texts or text phases can be either
activity focused or entity
focused:
(110)
10.
in
sum
we have
seen four ways of
expanding the meaning
of
a person or thing
(participants):
?
qualities (that can be intensified)
?
classes
(categorical distinctions)
?
qualifiers (that specify or elaborate
an entity)
?
parts (possessions, facets
(location in place or time)
,
measures
(portions of the
whole)
)
11.
the
taxonomic
relations
between
elements
in
a
string
are
of
two
general
kinds:
class, and whole-part.
Four
types:
class,
and
whole-part;
Contrast
(opposed
in
meaning
—
antonyms
(gradable and complementary antonyms)
and converses (relational oppositeness),
and series of differing meanings
(scales and cycles)); synonym; repetition (p. 129)
12.
in general the drift in meaning, by
means of ideational metaphor, has been from
reality
as
processes
involving
people
and
concrete
things,
to
reality
as
relations
between
abstract
things,
as
with
the
transference
from
marrying
as
process
to
marriage
as
thing.
Part
of
the
reason
for
this
shift
has
to
do
with
the
greater
potential for expanding the meaning of
things:
…
(132)
13.
There
is
a
set
of
regular
principles
for
creating
ideational
metaphors;
for
re-construing one kind of
element as another, including:
1 a
process or quality can be re-construed as if it
was a thing
2 a process, or a quality
of a process, can be re-construed as a quality of
a thing.
These
are
ideational
metaphors
of
the
experiential
type,
i.e.
they
are
concerned
with elements of
figures.
Ideational
metaphors
of
the
logical
type
are
concerned
with
re-construing
a
conjunction between figures as if it
were a process, quality, circumstance or thing.
(132)
14.
ideational
metaphor tends to re-construe our experience of
reality as if it consisted
of
relations
between
institutional
abstractions.
These
strategies
have
evolved
to
enable writers to generalize about
social processes, and to describe, classify and
evaluate them.
One cost is that it may be hard to
recover who is doing what to whom; another is
that this type of discourse can be very
hard to read and understand.
Unpacking
ideational metaphors
…
can
help to reveal how they construe reality
and is one key strategy for teaching
language learners how they work. (135)
15.
this
distinction
between
concrete
and
abstract
ways
of
meaning
reflects
a
fundamental division in
fields of activity in modern cultures between the
everyday
activities of family and
community, and the
“
uncommon
sense
”
fields of technical
professions and social institutions
such as law, medicine or education.
Everyday
fields
are
organized
primarily
by
personal
relations
between
interacting
speakers, while uncommon sense fields
are organized as much by written records. (p.
135)
16.
kinds of
entities:
concrete
entities: everyday; specialized
abstract
entities:
technical;
institutional;
semiotic;
generic
(terms for
classes and
parts)
metaphoric entities: those derived from
process; those derived from quality (135)
17.
(external) conjunctions (and
continuatives) serve as logical
connections between
figures,
adding them together (addition: additive and
alternative),
comparing
them (comparison: similarity and contrast),
sequencing
them
in
time
(time:
successive
(following
and
preceding)
and
simultaneous),
or
explaining
their
causes,
purposes
or
conditions
(consequence:
cause,
means,
purpose, and condition (open and
foreclose)).
These are all
types of logical relations between figures.
While ideation represents experience as
figures and taxonomies of people, things,
processes and qualities, conjunction
links figures together into sequences. (139)
18.
internal
conjunction:
these
items
are
not
linking
events
(events,
things,
or
qualities) in the world
beyond the text; rather they are used to link
logical steps
that are internal to the
text itself. (148)
…
internal conjunction can be used to organize the
stages of a text, such as the
sequence
of
Arguments
in
an
exposition,
to
link
steps
in
an
argument,
give
examples,
and
draw
conclusions.
Internal
conjunctions
fall
into
the
same
four
general
types that we saw for external conjunctions: (150)
Addition:
developing
(addition
and
alternation),
and
staging
(framing
and
sidetracking) (150)
Comparison: similarity and difference
(152)
Time (ordering arguments):
successive and simultaneous (153)
Internal consequence: concluding and
countering (154)
19.
instead
of
coming
at
the
beginning
of
the
clause,
continuatives
typically
occur
next to the finite
verb within the clause
…
20.
however, another perspective on
continuatives is that they can be used to manage
our
expectations
in
discourse.
On
this
criterion
we
can
group
together
“
already,
finally, still, yet, only, just,
even
”
, since they all signal
that an activity is in some
way
unexpected. (156)
pre-empting any
objections and countering them. (158)
21.
there are
certain conjunctions that specifically serve to
signal counter expectancy.
These
include kinds of time, consequences and
comparisons.
Then: allowing for an
unexpected turn of events.
Suddenly:
sooner than expected.
Temporal
continuatives: something happening sooner or
later, or persisting longer
than one
might expect.
Still: persisting longer
than might be reasonable expected.
Finally: taking longer than expected
22.
concessive consequence:
concessive causes:
even if
although, even
though (because)
but, however (so,
therefore)
“
but
”
can realize concessive causes, and also
contrast, which can be confusing.
We can test whether the relation is
concession by trying to substitute
“
but
”
with
conjunctions that we know realize
consequential meanings
(
“
however,
although
”
).
(159)
Concessive means: even by (by), but
(thus)
Concessive purpose: without (in
order to)
Concessive condition: even if
(if), even then (then) (160)
23.
unexpected
comparisons:
in fact, instead of, rather, on the
other hand, conversely, by contrast
comparative
continuatives
indicate
that
there
is
more
or
less
to
a
situation
than
might be expected. (160)
24.
25.
26.
27.
one of the reasons that writers use
logical metaphors for conjunctions is that they
can grade their evaluation of relations
between events or arguments.
Another
reason: information flow (169)
28.
logical
metaphor
allows
other
meanings
to
be
incorporated.
Logical
metaphor
(construing
conjunctions
as
things)
enables
logical
things
to
be
numbered,
described, classified and qualified.
on the other hand, re-
construing conjunction as qualities means they can
be used
to modify things or processes.
(171)
29.
we have shown two advantages of
unpacking experiential and logical metaphors.
One is that by paraphrasing highly
metaphorical discourse in a more spoken form,
we can show learners from more spoken
to more written modes.
Another is that we can recover
participant roles and logical arguments that tend
to
be
rendered
implicit
by
ideational
metaphor.
This
can
be
a
powerful
tool
for
critical discourse
analysis, revealing implicit nuclear relations
such as agency and
effect, and implicit
logical relations such as cause and effect. (172)
30.
(189)
31.
the use of
pronouns to sustain reference within phases, nouns
to frame phases in
story telling.
Another
function
of
using
full
nominal
groups
to
track
participants
is
evaluation
…
(192)
32.
the local
tracking rule
this kind of tracking has
evolved
…
in order to avoid
any ambiguities that might
be exploited in a legal challenge.
(198)
33.
identification systems: (199)
34.
tracking
systems: (200)
35.