-
the People's Republic of
China
is a unitary multi-ethnic state,comprising the han
people and
over fifty ethnic minorities
.
中华人民共和国是一个包含了汉族和
50
多个少数民族的统一多民族
国家。
With a sizable population of 8.61
million, the Hui ethnic group is one of China's
largest ethnic
minorities. People of
Hui origin can be found in most of the counties
and cities throughout the
country,
especially in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region
and Gansu, Qinghai, Henan, Hebei,
Shandong and Yunnan provinces and the
X
injiang Uygur Autonomous Region.
有着一个庞大的
861
万人口的回族族群是中国最大的少数民族。回族人遍布于全国很多城市和地
区
,
特别是在宁夏回族自治区、甘肃、青海、河南、河北、山东、
云南和新疆维吾尔自治区。
History
The
name
Hui
is
an
abbreviation
for
which
first
appeared
in
the
literature
of
the
Northern Song Dynasty (960-1127). It
referred to the Huihe people (the Ouigurs) who
lived in
Anxi in the present-day
Xinjiang and its vicinity since the
T
ang Dynasty (618
-907). They
were
actually forerunners of the
present-day Uygurs, who are totally different
from today's Huis or
Huihuis.
回族是回回族的
简称
,
第一次出现在北宋
(
公元
960 - 1127)
的文献中。它指的是
唐代
(
公元
618 -
907)
住在安西当今新疆及周边的
Huihe
p>
人
(Ouigurs)
。
< br>其实他们是今天维吾尔族的祖先
,
完全不同
于今天的回族或
Huihuis
。
< br>
During the early years of the 13th
century when Mongolian troops were making their
western
expeditions, group after group
of Islamic-oriented people from Middle Asia, as
well as Persians
and
Arabs,
either
were
forced
to
move
or
voluntarily
migrated
into
China.
As
artisans,
tradesmen,
scholars, officials and religious leaders, they
spread to many parts of the country
and
settled down mainly to livestock breeding.
These
peo
ple,
who were also called
Huis
or
Huihuis
because
their
religious
beliefs
were
identical
with
people
in
Anxi,
were
part
of
the
ancestors
to today's Huis.
在早期的
13
世纪蒙古军队向西的远征
,
使一批又一批信仰伊斯兰教的中亚人以及波斯和阿拉伯
人
,
要么被迫迁移要么自愿进入中国。
那些工匠,
< br>商人、
学者、
政府官员和宗教领袖
,
他们流落到
中国的许多地区落户,
主要从事养殖业。
这些人
,
被称为回族
或回回
,
因为他们的宗教信仰与安西
人
相。这其中的一部分人就是今天回族的祖先。
Earlier, about the middle of the 7th
century, Islamic Arabs and Persians came to China
to trade
and
later
some
became
permanent
residents
of
such
cities
as
Guangzhou,
Quanzhou,
Hangzhou,
Yangzhou
and
Chang'an
(today's
X
i'an).
These
people,
referred
to
as
(guests
from
outlying
regions),
built
mosques
and
public
cemeteries
for
themselves.
Some
married
and
had children who came to
be known as
fanke,
guests from
outlying
regions.
people became
part of the Huihuis, who were coming in
great numbers to China from Middle
Asia.
早些时候
,
大约
7
世纪中期
,
伊斯兰阿拉伯人和波斯人来中国进行贸易,后来一些定居在广州,泉
州、
杭州、扬州、长安
(
今天的西安
)
p>
等地。这些人被称为
“
番客
”
(
应该是从边远地区来的客人
)
、
他们为自己建造清真寺和公众坟场。一些人结了婚
,
生的孩子后来被称为
“
土生番客
”
,
意思表示
“
本地出生的从边远地区来的客人。在元朝
(12
71 - 1368),
这些人成为大量从中亚来到中国的回
回
的一部分。
The
Huihuis of today are therefore an ethnic group
that finds its origins mainly with the
above-mentioned two categories, which
in the course of development took in people from a
number of other ethnic groups including
the Hans, Mongolians and Uygurs.
今天的回回因此主要起源于上述两类
,
并在发展的
过程吸纳了许多其他民族包括汉族、蒙古族和
维吾尔族的民族。
It is generally acknowledged that
Huihui culture began mainly during the Yuan
Dynasty.
一般都认为回回文化主要开始在元朝。
Warfare and farming were the two
dominant factors of this period. During their
westward
invasion, the Mongols turned
people from Middle Asia into scouts and sent them
eas
tward on
military
missions. These civilians-turned-military scouts
were expected to settle down at
various
locations and to breed livestock while maintaining
combat readiness. They founded
settlements in areas in today's Gansu,
Henan, Shandong, Hebei and Yunnan provinces and
the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. They
later were joined by more scouts sent from the
west. As time went by they became
ordinary farmers and herdsmen. Among the Islamic
Middle
Asians, there were a number of
artisans and tradesmen. The majority of these
people settled
in cities and along
vital communication lines, taking to handicrafts
and commerce. Because of
these
activities a common economic life began to take
shape among the Huihuis. Scattered as
they were, they stuck together in
relative concentration in settlements and around
mosques
which they built. This has been
handed down as a specific feature of the
distribution of Hui
population in
China.
战争和农业是这个时期的两个主导因素。在西
征期间
,
蒙古人把从中亚强征的人派去东方执行军
事任务。
这些壮丁定居在各地从事畜牧业并保持战备。
他们定居在了今天的甘肃地区、河南、
山
东、
河北、
云南和宁夏回族自治区。
后来又派来了更多的从
西方来的壮丁加入了他们。
随着时间
的推移
,
他们成了普通的农民和牧民。
在亚洲伊斯兰中间
,
有一系列的工匠和商人。
绝大多数人住
在城市
,
沿着一条重要的交通流线、带去工艺
品和商业的发展。因为这些活动的一个共同的经济
生活中开始形成回回。分散他们
,
他们一起在相对集中在定居点和在他们所修建清真寺。这已经
传了作为一种具体的特征回族人口分布在中国。
The Huihui
scouts and a good number of Huihui aristocrats,
officials, scholars and merchants
sent
eastward by the Mongols were quite active in
China. They exercised influence on the
establishment of the Yuan Dynasty and
its military, political and economic affairs. The
involvement of Huihui upper-class
elements in the politics of Yuan Dynasty in turn
helped to
promote the development of
Huihuis in many fields.
Generally speaking, the social position
of Huihuis during the Yuan Dynasty
was
higher than
that of the Hans.
Nevertheless, they were still subjected to the
oppression of Yuan rulers. After
going
through the hardships of their eastward exodus,
they continued to be in the hands of
various Mongolian officials,
functioning either as herdsmen or as government
and army
artisans. A fraction of them
even were allocated to Mongolian aristocrats to
serve as house
slaves.
Being people who came to
China from places where social systems, customs
and habits
differed from those in the
east, the Huihuis began to cultivate their own
national consciousness.
This was caused
also by their relative concentration with mosques
as the center of their social
activities, by their increasing
economic contacts with each other, by their common
political fate
and their
common belief in the Islamic religion.
It was during the Ming
Dynasty (1368-1644) that the Huihuis began to
emerge as an ethnic
group.
Along with the nationwide
restoration and development of the social economy
in the early Ming
Dynasty years, the
distribution and economic status of the Huihui
population underwent a
drastic change.
The number of Huihuis in Shaanxi and Gansu
provinces increased as more
and more
Huihuis from other parts of the country submitted
themselves to the Ming court and
joined
their people in farming.
Other factors contributed to their
dispersion: industrial and commercial exchanges,
assignment of Huihui garrison troops to
various areas to open up wasteland and grow food
grain, nationwide tours by Huihui
officials and scholars, and especially the
migration of Huihuis
during peasant
uprisings. They still managed, however, to
maintain their tradition of
concentration by setting up their own
villages in the countryside or sticking together
in
suburban areas or along particular
streets and lanes in cities. The dislocation of
military scouts
dating from the Yuan
Dynasty had enabled the Huihuis to extricate
themselves gradually from
military
involvement and to settle down to farming,
breeding livestock, handicrafts and
small-scale trading. Thus they
established a new common economic life among
themselves,
characterized by an
agricultural economy.
During the initial stage of their
eastward exodus, the Huihuis used the Arab,
Persian and Han
languages. However, in
the course of their long years living with the
Hans, and especially due
to the
increasing number of Hans joining their ranks,
they gradually spoke the Han language
only, while maintaining certain Arab
and Persian phrases. Huihui culture originally had
been
characterized by influences from
the traditional culture of Western Asia and
assimilation from
the Han culture.
However, due to the introduction of the Han
language as a common language,
the
tendency to assimilate the Han culture became more
obvious. The Huihuis began t
o wear
clothing like the Hans. Huihui names
were still used, but Han names and surnames became
accepted and gradually became dominant.
Islamic
Religion
The
Islamic religion had a deep influence on the life
style of the Hui people. For instance, soon
after birth, an infant was to be given
a Huihui name by an ahung (imam); wedding
ceremonies
must be witnessed by ahungs;
a deceased person must be cleaned with water,
wrapped with
white cloth and buried
coffinless and promptly in the presence of an
ahung who serves as the
presider. Men
were accustomed to wearing white or black brimless
hats, specially during
religious
services, while women were seen with black, white
or green scarves on their head
--
a habit which also derived from
religious practices. The Huis never eat pork nor
the blood of
any animal or creature
that died of itself, and they refuse to take
alcohol. These taboos
originated in the
Koran of the Moslems. The Huis are very particular
about sanitation and
hygiene. Likewise,
before attending religious services, they have to
observe either a
cleaning,
requires a thorough
bath of the whole body.
Islamism also had great impact on the
political and economic systems of Hui society.
as well as an economic
system. According to the system, a mosque was to
be built at each
location inhabited by
Huis, ranging from a dozen to several hundred
households. An imam was
to be invited
to preside over the religious affairs of the
community as well as to take
responsibility over all aspects of the
livelihood of its members and to collect religious
levies
and other taxes from them. A
mosque functioned not only as a place for
religious activities but
also as a
rendezvous where the public met to discuss matters
of common interest. Religious
communities, operating quite
independently from each other, had thus become the
basic social
units for the widely
dispersed Hui people. Following the development of
the Hui's agricultural
economy and the
increase of religious taxes levied on them, some
chief imams began to build
up their
personal wealth. They used this to invest in land
properties and engag
e in exploitation
through land rents. The imams gradually
changed themselves into landlords. Working in
collaboration with secular landlords,
they enjoyed comprehensive power in the religious
communities, which they held tightly
under their control. They left routine religious
affairs of the
mosques to low-rank
ahungs.
The
last stage of the Ming Dynasty and the early years
of the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911) saw
the
emergence of a new system of religious aristocracy
among the Huis in Hezhou (today's
Linxia in Gansu Province). It came into
existence as a result of intensified land
concentration
which exceeded the
boundaries of one single religious community. This
made certain imams
rulers of a whole
series of religious communities, turning them into
Islamic aristocrats. They
were deified.
Kiosks were erected in their cemeteries for
Moslems under their jurisdiction to
worship. Their position was seen as
hereditary. They enjoyed a series of feudalistic
privileges
as well as absolute
authority over their people. The system had been
in existence, however,
only in some of
the Hui areas in Gansu, Ningxia and Qinghai. The
Huis in hinterland China had
always
functioned under the religious community system.
Contribution to
Chinese Civilization
The Huis are an industrious people.
Their development and progress have been
facilitated,
however, by adopting the
Han language and living with the Hans. Since the
Yuan and Ming
dynasties, large numbers
of Hui peasants joined the Hans and people of
other nationalities in
reclaiming
wasteland, farming and grazing in the hinterland
and along border regions. Hui
artisans
were famous for their craftsmanship in making
incense, medicine, leather and
cannons,
as well as in mining and smelting of ore. Hui
merchants played a positive role
in the
economic exchanges between the
hinterland and border regions and in trade
contacts
between China and other Asian
countries. Hui scholars and scientists made
outstanding
contributions to China in
introducing and spreading the achievements of
Western Asia in
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