-
A
n
a
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a
l
y
< br>s
i
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f
E
p>
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T
e
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c
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< br>i
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p>
L
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a
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A general view
W
e
i
p>
n
t
e
n
d
t
o
l
p>
e
a
r
n
:
Part One:
An Analysis of the Target
Language
---Distinctions of a few
terminologies
---approach,
method and technique
Part Two: A study
of the subject
—
language
learners and learning
processes
--- An Analysis of Learning
--- some research into language
learning
--- individual learner
differences and second language acquisition
Part three (optional)
1. learner-centeredness
2.
task-based learning Approach in
Teaching
3. cooperative
learning in Teaching
F
i
r
s
t
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
v
s
s
p>
e
c
o
n
d
l
a
n
g
u
a
< br>g
e
?
What is first
language?
?
---first??
?
What is second language?
?
---second???
L
1
?
First language
?
Native language
?
Mother language
?
Primary language
L
2
?
Second language
?
Non-native
language
?
Foreign language
?
Secondary
language
d
i
s
t
i
n
c
t
i
o
n
s
?
Three aspects:
?
Manner of acquisition
?
Social function
?
Level of
proficiency
M
a
n
p>
n
e
r
o
f
a
p>
c
q
u
i
s
i
t
i
o
n
?
L1:---
---
?
L2:--- ---
S
o
c
i
a
l
f
u
n
< br>c
t
i
o
n
?
In social life, how do the speaker use
the language?
?
L1:---
---
?
L2:--- ---
1
L
e<
/p>
v
e
l
o
f
p
p>
r
o
f
i
c
i
e
n
c
y
?
Which is more
proficient, or higher level?
?
L1 or L2?
s
u
m
m
a
r
y
?
L1:---
---
?
L2:--- ---
I
n
t
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
< br>o
n
?
Two
professions:
TESL & TEFL
?
1. TESL:
teaching English as a second language
?
2. TEFL:
teaching English as a foreign language
B
A
N
A
&
T
E
p>
S
E
P
?
Britain,
Australia and North America (BANA )
?
Tertiary,
secondary and primary English language education
(TESEP)
S
e
c
o
n
d
< br>l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
v
e
r
s
p>
u
s
f
o
r
e
i
g
n
l
< br>a
n
g
u
a
g
e
?
What is a
second language?
?
What is second?
?
What is a first language? Or native and
mother tongue?
S
e
c
o
n
d
<
/p>
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
?
A
language second to first language.
?
A second
language is a language which is not a native
language in a country but which is
widely used as a medium of
communication, e.g. in education and in government
and
which is usually used alongside
another language or languages
?
In both Britain
and North America, it would describe a native
language in a country as
F
o<
/p>
r
e
i
g
n
l
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
learned by
people living there who have another first
language. English in UK would be
called
a second language of immigrants and people whose
first language is Welsh
?
Foreign language?
?
What is
foreign?
?
---
, in, from , another
country, not one‘s own.
?
---2. coming or
introduced from outside.
?
So, how do you understand foreign
language?
F
o
r
e
i
g
n
l
a
< br>n
g
u
a
g
e
?
---A language which is not a Native
language in a country. A foreign language is
usually
?
?
--- in British
usage, a distinction is often made between foreign
language and second
studied either for
communication with foreigners who speak the
language, or for reading
printed
materials in the language. In North American
applied linguistics usage, foreign
language and second language are often
used to mean the same in this sense.
language, a foreign language is a
language which is taught as a school subject but
which
is not used as a medium of
instruction in schools nor as a language of
communication
2
within a country
?
NL,SL & FL
?
SL & NL
?
FL & NL
?
Official status
P
e
r
s
p>
o
n
a
l
o
r
s
o
c
i
< br>e
t
a
l
?
In fact,
second language carries personal and societal
sense, just as personal and
societal bilingualism.
?
Second language
in its societal sense means that a country two
languages are used side
by side with
each other, and is often recognized as official
(official status). They are
second to
each other.
S
L
i
n
s
p>
o
c
i
e
t
a
l
s
e
n
s
< br>e
D
i
s
c
u
s
s
i
o
n
?
1. English in
China, Japan, Singapore,
?
India & HK, SL
or FL?
?
2.
Burmese in Yunnan bordering Burma,
?
Putonghua in
Xinjiang, SL or FL?
?
3. Other examples?
D
< br>i
f
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
b
e
t
p>
w
e
e
n
T
E
S
L
&
< br>T
E
F
L
?
A. purpose
?
TESL??
?
TEFL??
Approach, method and
technique
d
i
s
c
u
s
s
i
o
n
?
How would you
to do (as many ways as possible):
?
---you are to
kill an elephant in a valley.
?
---you are to
catch fish in a pond.
?
Why
can you do it that way?
U
n
d
e
p>
r
l
y
i
n
g
P
r
i
n
c
< br>i
p
l
e
s
?
Starve the elephant: why?
?
Shoot with a
rifle: why it works?
?
….
H
o
w
d
o
y
o
u
d
o
?
?
Dry the pond
?
By fishing rod
?
….
?
Starve the
elephant:
?
What an overall plan would you like to
have?
a
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
?
What is an approach?
?
----the act of
getting close to
?
----way, path, road
?
In language
teaching, approach is a set
3
of assumptions dealing with
the nature of
language teaching and
learning. It
describes the nature of
the subject matter
to be
t
aught…
techniques
m
e
t
h
o
d
?
What is a
method?
Langua
ge
teachin
Approach
a
Method a
Method b
Lan
skil
?
?
----way of doing sth
Method is an overall plan for the
orderly
presentation of language
material, no
part of which contradicts,
and all of which
is based upon, the
selected approach. An
approach is
axiomatic, a method is
procedural.
t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
< br>e
?
?
Technique: technical or mechanical
skills
A technique is
implementational
–
that
which actually takes place in a
classroom.
It is a particular trick,
strategem, or
contrivance used to
accomplish an
immediate objective.
Techniques must
be consistent with a
method, and
therefore in harmony with
an approach
as well.
C
o
m
m
< br>o
n
t
e
c
h
n
i
q
u
e
s
p>
?
---
-reading aloud, listening
to the tape,
?
discussion, translation
?
R
----
……..?????
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
?
What‘s their relations?
?
For approach,
method, and technique,
which determines
which?
?
----approach determines method, in
turn,
?
method determines technique.
?
The arrangement
is hierarchical. The
organizational key
is that techniques
carry out a method
which is consistent
with an approach
p>
D
i
a
g
r
a
m
a
g
Method
Method
Approach
c
d
b
techniques
D
i
a
g
r
a
m
b
approach
M a
M b
M c
T a
T b
T c
T d
T e
T f
?
Elements and sub-elements of method
R
p>
i
c
h
a
r
d
s
a
n
d
p>
R
o
d
g
e
r
‘
s
m
o
d
< br>e
l
?
It includes
approach, design and
techniques
A
p
p
r
o
a
c
h
A
.
a
t
h
p>
e
o
r
y
o
f
t
h
e
p>
n
a
t
u
r
e
o
f
l
p>
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
?
----an account of the nature of
language
proficiency
----what can be called language
proficiency
?
----an account
of the basic units of
language
structure
?
----An account of the basic units of
4
language structure
the learning of others
?
----basic units of language structure:
?
----phonology
is important?
?
---- meaning and form, which is more
important?
letter, word, phrase, sentence,
discourse
?
--
the view of the learner as
a processor,
performer, initiator,
problem solver, etc.
T
e
a
c
h
e
r
r
o
l
e
s
b
.
N
p>
a
t
u
r
e
o
f
l
p>
a
n
g
u
a
g
e
l
e
a
r
< br>n
i
n
g
?
--
types of functions teachers fulfill
?
--- partner, resource of information
participant, organizer, director,
manager…
learning
?
1.
Psycholinguistics and cognitive
processes
?
----psycholinguistic processes
?
----cognitive
processes
?
2.
Conditions allowing for the process
d
p>
e
s
i
g
n
?
--
degree of
teacher influence over
?
--
degree to
which the teacher
decide the content
determines the content of
learning
?
---
does the teacher have the right to
?
--- text-based or not
?
--
types of interaction between teachers
and learners
?
A. The general and specific objectives
of
the method
?
----
what‘s the general
objectives?
?
----
what‘s the specific
objectives?
A
s
y
l
l
a
b
u
s
m
o
d
e
l
?
---interaction modes:
t
—
ss, t-s, s alone
T
h
e
p>
r
o
l
e
o
f
i
n
s
t
< br>r
u
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
m
a
t
p>
e
r
i
a
l
s
?
criteria for
the selection and organization
of
linguistic and /or subjective-matter
content
?
---- what materials to be selected?
?
---- how should
the materials be
organized?
?
---
primary function of materials
?
---
the form materials take (e.g.,
textbook, audiovisual)
and
learners
?
---
assumptions made about teachers
?
Procedure
?
Classroom techniques, practice, and
?
----and what
subjective-matter?
T
y
p
e
s
o
f
l
p>
e
a
r
n
i
n
g
a
n
d
p>
t
e
a
c
h
i
n
g
a
c
t
< br>i
v
i
t
i
e
s
?
kinds of tasks
and practice activities to be
employed
in the classroom and in
materials
note-taking, translation or others?
behaviors observed when the method is
used
and equipment used by
the teacher
lessons
?
--
resources in terms of time, space,
?
--
interactional patterns observed in
?
--
tactics and strategies used by
teachers and learners when
the method
is being used
?
---- tasks and
practice, listening,
L
e
a
r
n
e
r
r
o
l
e
s
?
--
types of learning tasks set for
learners
?
--
degree of
control learners have over
the content
of learning
?
--
patterns of learner
groupings that are
recommended or
implied
?
B.
learning difficulty
?
Which is easier, why?
?
--
degree to which learners
influence
L
2
l
e
a
r
n
i
n
g
< br>
t
h
e
o
r
i
e
s
?
The
habit-formation theory
5
?
The hypothesis
of linguistic universals
?
Constructivism
?
The acculturation theory
?
The discourse
theory
?
Monitor
theory
T
h
e
p>
h
a
b
i
t
-
f
o
r
m
a
t
< br>i
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
y
?
A behavioristic view of language
learning
?
---language is a behavior
?
---to learn a
new language is to form a new habit
?
---the process
is: stimulus-response-reinforcement
T
h
e
p>
h
y
p
o
t
h
e
s
i
s
o
f
l
p>
i
n
g
u
i
s
t
i
c
u
n
< br>i
v
e
r
s
a
l
s
?
A innateness theory
?
---language is
inborn
?
---language is universal
?
---we learn
language with the help of LAD
?
---A grammar
covers both core grammar and peripheral grammar
p>
c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
i
< br>s
m
?
Representative:
Seppo Tella
?
constructivism---construction
?
Knowledge is a
process of construction
C
o
p>
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
v
i
s
m
< br>
?
basically a
theory -- about how people learn: people construct
their own understanding and
knowledge
of the world, through experiencing things and
reflecting on those experiences.
When
we encounter something new, we have to
reconcile
it with our
previous ideas and
experience, maybe
changing what we believe, or maybe discarding the
new information as
irrelevant.
questions, explore, and
assess what we know.
?
In any case, we are active creators of
our own knowledge. To do this, we must ask
Outside
knowledge
what
happens?
I
m
p>
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
c
o
n
c
< br>e
p
t
s
建构主义理论一个重要概念是图式,
图式是指个体对世界的知觉理解和思考的方式。
也可
以把它
看作是心理活动的框架或组织结构。图式是认知结构的起点和核心,或者说是人类认识
事
物的基础。因此,图式的形成和变化是认知发展的实质,认知发展受三个过程的影响:即同
化、顺化和平衡。
schemata
6
同化(
a
ssimilation
)是指学习个体对刺激输入的过滤或改变过程。也就是说个体在
感
受刺激时,把它们纳入头脑中原由的图式之内,使其成为自身的一部分。
顺应
(accommodation)
是指学习者调节自己的内部结构以适应特定刺
激情境的过程。当学
习者遇到不能用原有图式来同化新的刺激时,便要对原有图式加以修
改或重建,以适应环境。
平衡
(equilibration)
是指学
习者个体通过自我调节机制使认知发展从一个平衡状态向另一个
平衡状态过渡的过程。<
/p>
结余
(
1
)学习
不是由教师把知识简单地传递给学生,而是由学生自己建构知识的过程。学生不
是简单被
动地接收信息,而是主动地建构知识的意义,这种建构是无法由他人来代替的。
(
2
p>
)学习不是被动接收信息刺激,而是主动地建构意义,是根据自己的经验背景,对外部
信息进行主动地选择、加工和处理,从而获得自己的意义。外部信息本身没有什么意义,意义<
/p>
是学习者通过新旧知识经验间的反复的、双向的相互作用过程而建构成的。因此,学习,不
是
象行为主义所描述的
―
刺激
--
反应
‖
那样。
p>
(
3
)
学习意义的获得,
是每个学习者以自己原有的知识经验为基础,
对新信息重新认识和编码,
建构自己的理解。在这一过程中,学习者原有
的知识经验因为新知识经验的进入而发生调整和
改变。
(
4
p>
)
同化和顺应,
是学习者认知结构发生变化
的两种途径或方式。
同化是认知结构的量变,
而顺应则是认知结
构的质变。同化-顺应-同化-顺应
……
循环往复,平衡-不平
衡-平衡-
不平衡,相互交替,人的认知水平的发展,就是这样的一个过程。学习不是简
单的信息积累,
更重要的是包含新旧知识经验的冲突,以及由此而引发的认知结构的重组
。学习过程不是简单
的信息输入、存储和提取,是新旧知识经验之间的双向的相互作用过
程,也就是学习者与学习
环境之间互动的过程。
建
构
主
义
< br>的
学
习
观
Difference
?
---The classroom is no longer a place
where the teacher (
passive students,
who wait like empty vessels to be filled.
?
---In the constructivist model, the
students are urged to be actively involved in
their own
process of learning. One of
the teacher's biggest jobs becomes ASKING GOOD
QUESTIONS.
?
---and, in the
constructivist classroom, both teacher and
students think of knowledge not
as
inert factoids to be memorized, but as a dynamic,
ever-changing view of the world we
live
in and the ability to successfully stretch and
explore that view.
?
---in the constructivist classroom, the
focus tends to shift from the teacher to the
students.
Dialogism(
对话式讨论
)
?
―dialogue is a
crucial element in the creation of any language
organization and especially
in
establishing an open multimedia based
collaborative and networked learning
environment. It suggests that the
learning environment in the framework of dialogism
cannot be a physical space, a
classroom, nor any particular media education
tool. The
learning environment is
–
dialogue‖
The acculturation theory
?
By J. Schumann
and R. Anderson
?
Late 1970s
?
Culture?
?
Ac|cultur|ate
?
accuraturation
acculturation
7
definition
?
individuals of one culture have to go
through the process of modification in attitudes,
knowledge, and behavior in order to
function well in another culture. It involves not
only the
social adaptation but also
psychological adaptation.
?
A process in
which changes in the language, culture, and system
of values of a group
happen through
interaction with another group with a different
language
?
In
easy terms, it is to become a target culture
person.
example
?
A Chinese emigrant who lives in
America:
?
---to
think
?
---to
behave
Culture
A
Culture
B
?
---to speak
?
---to dress
acculturation
Two
stages
?
Deculturation: to get rid of one‘s own
culture
?
Acculturation: approach to another
culture
Two important factors
?
Social distance
?
Psychological
distance
Social distance
?
The physical
distance of the two
cultures
—
how far away is the
two culture?
?
---attitudes
?
---language
?
---social behavior
---
….
Psychological distance
?
Psychological
perception to the social
distance
—
how do we take it?
?
---if you can
understand it and are ready to change your own
culture, then it works
(acceptance).
?
---if you can
not understand and take the culture, or if you
find it too far away from your
own
culture, you resist it (resistance).
Acculturation and L2 acquisition
?
---Second language acquisition is just
one aspect of acculturation
?
---the degree
of acculturation will determine the degree of
second language acquisition.
Why?
?
Culture and
language is closely related.
?
---language
expresses culture reality
?
---L symbolizes culture reality (L is a
symbol of social identity)
?
Cultural attitudes determine how well
we learn the language.
8
?
what would like
to learn the language?
?
---if you like the culture.
?
---if you do
not like the culture.
?
By E. Hatch
?
Late
1970‘s
The discourse theory
definition
?
discourse often refers to the speech
patterns and usage of language, dialects, and
acceptable statements, within a
community
reflection
?
How do we speak
to children (motherese)?
?
---tone
?
---speed
?
---sentence length
?
---sentence
structure
?
---vocabulary
?
Is it the same
as our normal communication?
?
How do they
speak to their child at different age:
?
---half a year old
?
---one year old
?
---five years
old
?
---Ten
years old
?
---thirty years old
which
can be taken by the children.
Discourse
adaptation
?
Children learn their first language
because the speaker adjusted his discourse to a
mode
?
Discourse
adaptation is an ongoing process: from easier-to
difficult.
Child-directed language
?
Higher pitch
?
Pause more
often, more slowly
?
Pronounce words more clearly and
distinctly
?
Exaggerated intonation
?
Easier words
?
?
?
reflection
What is the way a native speaker
communicate with a second language acquirer?
---the speed
---vocabulary
?
…
In summary
9