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Harvard Referencing System Guide
Motivation For This Document
In academic work, you are expected to
follow certain rules of conduct in your study.
Specifically, whenever you
create an assignment, essay, presentation, group
project, or
other work which will be
submitted for discussion or for evaluation, then
your work
needs to be of
academic standard
.
Not doing so may cause your
grade to be reduced
significantly,
perhaps even to the point of failure.
“Academic standard”
is quite a vague term and can be
di
fferent things to different
people.
However,
for business students you can imagine that your
work should try to
emulate the work of
other people in the field of business.
In particular, this includes
work which you see in professional
journals, the work of your professors and the
writers
of your textbooks.
Of course, you are not expected to be
able to produce leading edge content in your work,
but the format of your work should
follow the same academic standard as professional
writers in your field at least in terms
of structure, referencing, and layout.
This document only discusses the
elements of referencing which are required for
“Academic standard” work.
Other elements of your work such as its
structure and
layout are also
important, but these are not discussed here.
Referencing can be done in many ways.
For your programme, the
standard method of
referencing is the
“Harvard System of References”.
This system is very common
world
-
wide, and is nearly
universally understood.
However in your professional career or
in
other other academic programmes, you
may be required to use other systems of
referencing.
You
are responsible for being aware of the local
standards required in any
work which
you produce.
In most reference systems,
the idea is to leave the main text of your work
uncluttered, but
to still provide clear
hints to the reader about where they can look for
further information.
Thus,
most reference systems are actually implemented in
two parts: a citation, and a
bibliographic entry.
A citation is just a shorthand marker
that you insert into the body
of your
work to allow the reader to find a resource such
as a book or an article or
a
television programme or
whatever.
The format for
this is specified by the system of
referencing you are using.
In the case of the Harvard System, a
citation looks like
“Smith (2002)”.
A bibliographic entry
provides a complete description of the actual
resource in a standard form.
It contains just enough
information for readers to find the
resource for themselves.
Again, the Harvard System of
referencing has its own unique
way of
expressing this information.
What This
Document Is
This work is taken largely
from an online guide to the Harvard System at the
University
of the West of England
website (UWE, 2005).
This is a guide to
the Harvard System of References and is based on
British Standards
1629:1989 and
5605:1990. As these standards do not yet include
references to electronic
resources we
include our own recommendations for these below.
These
recommendations follow current common
practice.
This document
provides a series of guidelines for
citations
(also known as
attributions
)
and
their accompanying
bibliographic
entries
.
These
guidelines however are not
completely
rigid: you have some flexibility in how you do
both citations and
bibliographic
entries.
But it is
important that you decide, within the flexibility
allowed
by the guidelines, your
specific way of making them.
Whatever that way is, you should
be absolutely consistent within your
work (i.e., within your
assignment/report/presentation).
Inconsistency is sloppy and
viewed as unprofessional.
Of course, if your professor or
supervisor imposes other constraints on you, then
you
should follow those as well.
General Comments About Electronic
Resources
The general recommendation
for electronic resources is that you need to
include all the
usual information for
print resources.
In
addition, you need to indicate that the resource
is online, where it was found online,
and when it was found online.
Details of this are
provided
below.
Furthermore, for any electronic
resource which has a printed counterpart (e.g., an
electronic book, or electronic
newspaper, etc.), you should present the
information in a
similar way in both
cases.
For example, if your
bibliographic entries to printed books
includes the title of the book quoted
and in italics (“
like this
”)
then your bibliographic
entry to
electronic books should also present the title in
the same way.
Citation in
the text of your work.
Introduction
A
citation
is
simply a reference to a resource.
The resource could be a page in a book,
a
magazine article, a television
programme, or even a telephone call.
In the Harvard
System, a
citation is simply the author's name, plus the
date of publication (though in the
case
of an authour who publishes more than one resource
in a given year, you need to add
an optional letter “a”, “b”, etc., to
distinguish between these resources).
This simple
method lets you
look up the bibliographic entry easily, and also
lets you see directly who
is being
quoted or referenced.
The
full details of the resource (the title of the
book and
the publisher, for example)
are provided in the bibliography section.
Here is an example of a citation:
...the work of Jones (1991a) shows that
lipids are...
When you write a report
or give a presentation you
include citations for a number of
reasons:
?
As a shorthand method of allowing your
readers to understand any background
material which may be important in
understanding your work.
As a way of
giving credit to other people for their ideas,
techniques, opinions, or
theories
As a way of proving that statements you
make have a foundation in reality (e.g., that
your quotations were really made by
some other persons, that the theories or results
that you mention are really published
somewhere, that the data you quote is real, etc.)
?
?
?
As a way of
giving specific references to other data, ideas,
techniques, opinions and
theories which
you are using in your work, so that other people
can evaluate your
work and/or compare
it to the work of others.
When do you
create citations in your work?
Here are some situations where you
should
create citations:
?
Whenever you
mention a theory or a definition of a concept, you
should provide a
reference to the
reader so that they can look up exactly what you
mean.
Ideally
the reference you choose would be one
which provides further information on
your theory/concept, but perhaps also a
general discussion of the area with other
competing theories or alternative
definitions.
Whenever you quote data
that you did not gather yourself through primary
research, then you need to say where
you got it from, and you do this by citing the
source of the data which you mention.
Whenever you
mention an opinion or quotation of somebody else,
you should
provide a reference to the
reader so they can look it up.
?
?
Where do you create citations in your
work?
The citations you
provide in your work are
put into the
text just after the place where the
theory/concept/data/quotation/opinion (or
whatever it is that needs explanation)
It is important to note that
every
citation in your work
should be linked to a
corresponding
bibliographic entry at the end of your work.
In general, if
you wish to
cite a particular book at
several places in your work (e.g, you reference a
theory on p.17
of the book, a quotation
from p.39 of the book, and some data from p.82 of
the book),
then you should:
?
make individual
citations at each place in your work, and noting
the page number
in the book.
e.g.,
?
?
...according to the theory of Smith
(Smith, 1996, p.17)...
...and Smith
(1996, p.39) stated: “economics is a pure
science”, by
which...
...but
other data indicates that only 0.9% (Smith, 1996,
p.82) of...
Smith,
J. 1996.
“
Economics
”.
Toronto.
University of Toronto Press.
?
?
Make a single bibliographic entry
describing the book.
e.g.,
?
In general,
don't duplicate your references.
Primary
Resources
(第一手资料)
Almost all of the time you will
reference primary resources.
“Primary resources” are
simply resources which you have
actually seen/heard/read. In the text of your work
you
make a reference to a primary
resource simply by using the author's surname and
year of
publication.
There are a number of equivalent ways
to do this, depending on the style
you
wish to employ.
If the author's name
occurs naturally in a sentence, then just give the
year in brackets:
...as
defined by Mintzberg (1983)
If not, then both name and year are
shown in brackets:
In a
recent study (Handy, 1987) management is described
as..
If the same author has
published more than one cited document in the same
year these are
distinguished by lower
case letters attached to the year of publication:
Drucker (1989a)
If there are two authors both names
should be given before the date:
Gremlin and Jenking (1981)...
If there are three or more
authors only the surname of the first author
should be given,
followed by 'et al.'
(which is the
short form of a phrase
meaning, “and others”):
Kotler et al. (1987)
If the author is unknown, use ?Anon.?
to indicate “anonymous author”:
Anon. (1967)
Secondary
Resources
(二手资料)
In some cases you may wish to quote
some resource that has been referred to in
something you have read. This generally
happens when the original resource is not
available to you.
Such resources are called “secondary
resources”.
Secondary
resources should be avoided if at all
possible.
The general principle to
follow in this case is that you must create a
bibliographic entry to
describe the
primary resource (
i.e.
, to
the book which you have read).
This
bibliographic entry is
done in the normal way.
However, the citation in the body of
your work will be a little different:
you must cite both the secondary resource and the
primary resource you have read.
Here are some examples
which will make this clearer:
Examples
:
Rowley
(1991) cites the work of Melack and Thompson
(1971) who
developed the McGill
Archaeology questionnaire.
Melack and
Thompson (1971, cited by Rowley 1991) developed
the McGill
Archaeology questionnaire.
Rowley (1991, citing Melack and
Thompson 1971) refers to the McGill
Archaeology questionnaire.
In each of these cases, in your list of
references the work by Rowley would be the only
one included.
Creating Bibliographic
References.
(建立参考书目格式)
Every citation in your work will link
to exactly one bibliographic entry.
However, one
bibliographic
entry
might
be linked to
many citations.
Where do you put your
bibliographic entries?
In
the Harvard System, they are all
placed
in one sectio
n of your work, usually
titled something like “Bibliography” or
“References”.
The Bibliography section follows the
main body of your work.
Format of the Bibliography
Section
(参考书目的格式)
The format of the bibliography section
is quite simple.
It begins
with something which
announces that
this is the bibliography section.
For example, a title at the top of the
first
page, “Bibliography” which is in
larger type and centred on the page.
Or, a separate
page with the
title “References” in large type and
centre
d on the page.
In either case,
following
this section heading are the bibliographic
entries.
In the
Harvard System, the bibliographic entries are
listed in sorted order.
The
sorting is
done based on the following
elements, in order of importance:
?
?
?
?
the first author's surname.
The first author's
initials.
The date of publication.
An optional letter (a,b,c,d,...)
distinguishing different publications by the same
author in the same year.
You
will note that these elements are the same ones
which make up the citation which
you
will use in the body of your work.
This makes a clear link between any
citation in
the body of your work, and
the bibliographic entries.
Some examples will make this
clear:
Anderson, B. 2005.
“...”
Jones, H. 2004.
“...”
Jones, Q.
19
96.
“...”
Jones, Q.,
1999.
“...”
Jones, Q., 1999a.
“...”
Jones, Q., 1999b.
“...”
Smith, A.
1762.
“...”
Between each bibliographic entry you
should normally insert a little space to allow the
reader to see where one entry ends and
another one begins.
For
example, a blank line or
blank half
line between entries would make your bibliography
easier to read.
All
modern word processing software can do
this for you.
When you are doing
research, you should collect references to each
kind of material in a
consistent way.
If there is a resource to
which you wish to make a reference, but is of a
kind which is not mentioned here, then
you should consult a more detailed source.
There are many such sources
available on the internet.
Individual
Bibliographic
Entries
(建立可供读者查阅的参考书目格式)
The most important principle in making
references is that the reader should be able to
locate the resource solely from the
bibliographic information that you have provided.
The rest of this section
describes what information needs to be provided
when creating
bibliographic references
for different kinds of resources.
Note that electronic versions of
resources (e.g., electronic books or articles)
which can be
also found in other media
(e.g., printed) are referenced through
bibliographic entries
which are
identical to their non-electronic counterparts,
but with a somewhat standard
additional
part.
Thus, an online book
would be referenced as for a printed book, but
would have in addition to the
information needed for a printed book the
following:
After Title:
“[online]”
After
Remainder of Bibliographic Entry:
“Available from:”
URL
Accessed date.
Reference to a book or a
report.
(书、报告)
You
need to provide the following information, in
order:
List of Author(s)
for
each author: Author's surname, followed by
Author's initials.
Year of publication.
Title. (in italics and/or quoted and/or
underlined).
Edition. (if not the
first).
Publisher.
Place of
publication.
After Title:
“[online]”
After
Place of Publication:
“Available from:” URL
Accessed date.
HEMINGWAY, E., 2003.
Better
reading French: a reader and guide to
improving your understanding of written
French
. : McGraw-Hill.
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. 2002.
National service framework for
diabetes: delivery strategy
.
: Department of Health.
Online Examples
:
HEMINGWAY, E., 2003.
Better
reading French: a reader and guide to
improving your understanding of written
French
[online]. : McGraw-Hill.
Available from: [Accessed 25 August
2004].
Plus for electronic
resources the following phrases and data:
Example
:
< br>(书)
DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH.
2002.
National service framework for
diabetes: delivery strategy
[online]. : Department of Health. Available from:
/assetRoot/04/03/28/23/ [Accessed 5
May 2004].
For books without
individual authors use ANON.
Example
:
ANON.
1991.
Turbo assembler: users' guide
version 2.0
. , CA: Borland.
Reference to a contribution in a
book.
(注释)
The
reader needs to know:
List
of Author(s)
for each author: Author's
surname, followed by Author's initials.
Year of publication.
Title
of Contribution.
“eds.”
List o
f Editor(s)
for each
editor: Editor's surname, followed by Editor's
initials
“in” Title of Book
(in italics and/or quoted and/or
underlined).
Edition. (if
not the first).
Publisher.
Place of publication.
Page
numbers of contribution.
Plus for electronic resources:
After Title:
“[online]”
After
Page Numbers:
“Available from:” URL
Accessed date.
SMITH, C.,1980. Problems of information
studies in history. In: S. STONE,
ed.
Humanities information
research.
: CRUS, 1980, pp 27-30.
WESTMORLAND, L., 2000.
Taking the flak: operational policing, fear and
violence. In: G. LEE-TREWEEK, ed.
Danger in the field: risk and ethics in
social research
[online]. :
Routledge, pp 26-42. Available from:
/
[Accessed 25 May 2004].
NOTE: When referring to specific pages
in a book 'pp' is used. Use 'p' if referring to a
single page.
Reference to a journal
article.
(期刊)
Some
journal articles are published in print only, some
in print and online (of which some
Example
:
(注释)
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