-
CONTENTS
?
Introduction
General Topics
A.
Typing
B.
Writing in
General
C.
Style Details in General
D.
Abbreviations
E.
Numbers
F.
Citations in
the Text
G.
Quotations
Research Reports
A.
Title
Page
B.
Abstract
C.
Introduction
D.
Methods
Subjects/Participants
Apparatus
Design
Procedure
E.
F.
G.
H.
Results
Discussion
References
Other
Sections
Tables
Figure Captions
Figures
I.
II.
III.
Research
Reviews
A.
Introduction
B.
Body
C.
Conclusions
Appendix 1
-
Example Title Page
Appendix 2
-
Example Ways to Present
Results
Appendix
3
-
Example Reference
Section
Appendix
4
-
Example Table
Appendix 5
-
Example Figure Captions Page
Scientific
research
is
a
public
venture.
Therefore,
one
of
the
essential
skills of the scientist is to be able
to communicate ideas and research
results
effectively.
This
hypertext
guide
is
an
attempt
to
make
the
style
of
writing used in the field of psychology clear to
you. It summarizes
a
lot
of
the
material
available
in
the
Publication
Manual
of
the
American
Psychological Association
(5-th edition) (2001) and is oriented toward
undergraduate
students.
For
example,
it
includes
numerous
hints
to
avoid
common
mistakes
students
make.
Note
the
examples
appear
in
a
teletype
font
to distinguish them from the normal
text. Finally, the document is
organized
in
an
outline
format
for
at
least
two
reasons.
First,
it
should
make
it
easier
for
students
to
quickly
locate
the
information
they
seek.
Second,
it
should
make
it
easier
for
an
instructor
to
grade
students
papers.
In
most
cases,
the
student
can
simply
be
referred
to
the
outline
item
that
addresses the problem rather than
writing the comment repeatedly on
multiple papers. Note that a
checklist version
of this
writing guide is
available.
I.
General
Topics
A.
Typing
-
Here
is
a
Microsoft
Word
2002
document/template
that
should help you with
some of the basic formatting.
1.
Your papers
must be typed or printed on a computer.
2.
Set the
typewriter or word processor to double space
and keep it there throughout the entire
manuscript.
3.
Use
one
inch
margins
on
the
left,
right,
top,
and
bottom
of the
page. These margins are wide in order to leave
room for reviewer's comments.
4.
Use normal
paragraphs in which the first line is
indented five characters for all
paragraphs in the
manuscript except the
abstract, block quotes, titles
and
headings, subheadings, references, table titles,
notes, and figure captions.
5.
Use a 12 point
font. In other words, there should be
10 typed characters per inch.
6.
Single space
after sentence terminators (i.e., '.',
'?', '!').
7.
Capitalize the first letter following a
colon if the
clause following the colon
is a complete sentence.
8.
Make sure the text is left aligned and
not justified.
With left aligned text,
the left margin forms a
straight line
and the right margin is ragged. With
justified text both the left and right
margins form a
straight line.
9.
Do not
hyphenate (split) words at the end of a line.
10.
B.
C.
Finally, just
staple or clip the finished product (do
not bother with fancy folders, etc.).
Writing in General
1.
You must use
complete sentences.
2.
The first sentence of a paragraph must
be
independent
(able
to
stand
on
its
own).
For
example
consider
While
these
studies
are
important,
there
is...
This
sentence
would be correct in
the middle of a paragraph, but as
the
first
sentence,
it
should
more
appropriately
read,
While studies of the effects of
whatever on whatever
else are
important, there is...
3.
Try not to use slang (e.g., ...put a
damper on...).
4.
Do
not
use
contractions.
That
is,
instead
of
it's,
use
it is.
5.
If you are
doubtful about the spelling of a word, do
not guess. Look up the correct spelling
in an
appropriate
reference
source
(e.g.,
).
6.
Proofread
the
copy
that
you
submit
and
do
correct
minor
typographical errors, formatting,
spelling, or even
the wording, with a
pencil. These corrections are
inevitable and will communicate that
you are serious
about your work.
Style Details in General
1.
Study
this
handout.
When
in
doubt
about
a
detail,
check
with the
Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association
.
2.
Assume you are
writing the paper for submission to a
scientific journal.
3.
A lot of the
formatting details can be learned by
carefully modeling another APA journal
article. It
would be a good idea to
acquire a few fairly recent
articles,
because the format was revised in 1995. Try
the
Psychological
Record
or
The Bulletin of
the
Psychonomic Society
.
Both of these journals publish
relatively short articles that are not
too
complicated.
4.
Avoid
excessive
use
of
the
terms
I,
me,
and
my,
as
well
as the
phrase personally speaking...
5.
Avoid the use
of sexist language. For example,
consistently
referring
to
a
person
as
a
him
or
he
when
it is just as likely for the person to
be a she or a
her,
is
sexist.
However,
using
(s)he
or
him/her
all
of
D.
the time can
also be awkward. If you phrase it right,
you can often use the word person
instead.
6.
Avoid using 'empty words' or words
which serve no
purpose.
For
example,
In
the
Smith
(1990)
study
it
was
found
that...
should
read
more
like
Smith
(1990)
found
that...
7.
Generally
speaking, use past tense in the abstract,
introduction, and method. Results and
discussion
sections can be in the
present tense.
8.
Get friends to read it. If they cannot
understand it,
then
it
needs
work.
If
you
cannot
get
a
friend
to
read
it, then try to read it
yourself making believe that
you are
naive.
Abbreviations
1.
When
abbreviating any terms, spell them out the first
time
(in
both
the
abstract
and
again
in
the
body
of
the
manuscript, if need be). For example,
The Sexual
Opinion Survey (SOS) was
used to...
2.
Do
not use too many abbreviations. Whereas one, two,
or
three
can
be
helpful,
four
or
five
can
be
confusing.
3.
You will often
see the following Latin abbreviations
used:
cf.
compare
etc.
and so forth
i.e.,
that is
vs.
versus, against
e.g.,
for example
et
al.
and others
4.
5.
6.
Note that
(except for et al.) these abbreviations are
only
used
in
parenthetic
material.
In
non parenthetic
material, use the English translation.
Do not use E and S as abbreviations for
experimenter
and subject. This was done
in articles written many
years ago.
Note
the
following
common
abbreviations
and
note
also
that
you do not use periods with them.
cm
centimeter
mg
milligrams
g
grams
M
mean
s
seconds
min
minutes
hr
hours
IQ
intelligence
E.
7.
For example, the bar was 2.5 cm wide
and 1.0 cm high.
Numbers
F.
All
measurement reporting is done in metric units. In
other words, use centimeters and meters
rather than
inches and feet.
2.
The numbers
zero through nine are spelled out (except
when it is a table or figure number, or
a metric
measurement, etc.). The
numbers 10 and above are
written as
numbers.
3.
Capitalize
nouns
followed
by
numerals
or
letters
that
denote a specific place in a numbered
series. For
example,
As
can
be
seen
in
Figure
3,
during
Block
4
of
Session 2 such and such
occurred... Note that this
example
demonstrates
one
of
the
exceptions
to
the
rule
noted in I.E.2.
4.
In
the
abstract,
use
digits
for
all
numbers
except
when
they begin a sentence.
Note that this example
demonstrates one
of the exceptions to the rule noted
in
I.E.2.
5.
Spell
out any number when it is the first thing in a
sentence. For example, the sentence 34
students were
used.,
is
not
appropriate
and
should
read
Thirty-four
students were used.
6.
Try to be
consistent with number formats. That is, if
you are reporting a series of related
numbers, they
should
all
be
presented
with
the
same
number
of
decimal
places. For an example, see I.D.5
above.
Citations in the
Text
1.
If
you
use
someone's
words
or
ideas,
you
must
give
them
credit
with
a
citation.
This
is
particularly
important,
since the penalties for plagiarism are
severe.
2.
There
are numerous ways to formally cite a reference
in the text. Examples include Some fact
(last name,
year)., Last name (year)
noted that..., or In
name>
reported
that...
For
more
ideas,
pay
close
attention to the articles you read.
3.
The
first
time
the
reference
is
cited
in
the
text,
spell
out
all
of
the
authors
last
names.
For
example,
Miller,
Rosellini,
and
Seligman
(1975)
suggested
that...
With
articles
that
have
three
or
more
authors
use
the
Latin
abbreviation for
cited
a
second
(or
third)
time.
For
example,
Miller
et
al. (1975) suggested
that... or ... some fact (Miller
et
al., 1975).
4.
If the citation is in parentheses and
you need to use
the word
1.
G.
example, Some (e.g., Estes & Skinner,
1940) have
suggested that..., as
compared to Estes and Skinner
(1940)
have suggested... Note also that the opposite
applies as well, that is, if the
citation is not in
parentheses, you
must use the word
5.
Multiple citations in parentheses are
placed
alphabetically and are separated
by a semicolon and a
space. For
example, Some fact (Carlson, 1972; Moon,
1968; Partin, 1980).
6.
If you cite
something second hand, you must make it
clear (e.g., Some fact (Smith, as cited
in Jones,
Year)). Note that in this
example, only the Jones
reference would
be placed in the reference section.
Quotations
1.
You must give
page numbers for direct quotes. For
example, Smith (1978) noted that
(p. 1).
2.
Three or four quotes in a 10 page paper
is about the
upper limit.
3.
Display a
quotation of more than 40 words as
free-standing
block
of
text
indented
5
spaces
from
the
left margin (doubles
spaced as usual). Omit the
quotation
marks and include the page number in
parentheses after the last period.
Also, if the
quotation
is
more
than
one
paragraph,
indent
the
first
line of
the second and any additional paragraphs 5
spaces.
II.
Research Reports
The order of the sections of the
manuscript are as follows:
A.
Title
Page
1.
See
an example title
page
.
2.
The manuscript page header is the first
thing that
appears
on
the
title
page.
It
consists
of
the
first
two
or
three
words
of
the
title
and
is
followed
by
the
page
number. It is used by the editors and
reviewers to
identify the pages of the
manuscript. It is placed in
the upper
right hand corner of all pages of the
manuscript (except for any figures).
Thus, the
manuscript
page
header
should
appear
as
the
first
line
of
the
title
page,
right
justified
with
the
number
'1'
either double spaced
below it or 5 spaces to the the
right
of
it.
If
you
are
using
a
word
processor,
you
can
B.
have it put
this manuscript page header on all pages
automatically.
3.
The running
head comes next and is no more than 50
characters (including punctuation and
spaces). It
typically consists of a
couple of key words from the
title.
Type this running head flush left and in all
capital letters. For example, Running
head: ABORTION
ATTITUDES IN COLLEGE
STUDENTS (note that the 'R' in
running
is capitalized, but the 'h' in head is not).
4.
Choosing a
title. The title should summarize the main
idea
of
the
paper
in
10-12
words.
A
good
recipe
to
work
with when reporting the results of an
experiment is
(Dependent Variable) as a
Function of (Independent
Variable)
or
The
Effects
of
(Independent
Variable)
on
(Dependent
Variable).
Another
option
is
to
use
the
main
finding as the title,
for example, Prenatal Alcohol
Impairs
Passive
Avoidance
Learning
in
Rats.
With
other
types
of research you should try to include the
variables
of
interest
in
the
title
(and
be
careful
not
to
imply
causality).
Also,
it
is
a
good
idea
to
include
the
species if you're working with animals or some
details
about
the
type
of
population
if
you're
working
with humans.
5.
When typing the title, center it on the
page and
capitalize only the first
letter of important words.
On
the
next
double
spaced
line
is
the
author's
name
and
on the next double
spaced line is the institutional
affiliation.
6.
For the purposes of this class, I would
also like you
to
include
something
like
In
partial
fulfillment
of
the
requirements for PSY389, Instructor's
Name, and the
Date.
Abstract
1.
The abstract
page is Page 2.
2.
Center the word Abstract on this page,
then begin
typing on the very next
double-spaced line (i.e., do
not insert
any extra blank lines here).
3.
Type
this
section
as
a
single
(double
spaced)
paragraph
in block format (i.e., do not use
indentation).
4.
The purpose of this section is to
provide a brief and
comprehensive
summary of the study. It is very
important
because
it
is
all
that
many
people
will
read.
It
should include a brief description of the problem
C.
being
investigated,
the
methods
used,
the
results,
and
their implications.
5.
It
should
be
accurate
(do
not
include
information
here
that is not in the body
of the manuscript),
self-contained
(spell out abbreviations), concise
(120
word maximum), and specific (begin this section
with
the
most
important
information
and
limit
it
to
the
four or
five most important concepts, findings, or
implications of the study).
6.
As part of the
theme of being concise, use digits for
all numbers except when they begin a
sentence.
7.
Avoid citing references in the
abstract.
8.
Paraphrase rather than quoting.
9.
Use active
rather than passive voice (but without
personal pronouns), for example, use
Researchers
instructed participants to
. . ., rather than,
Participants were
given instructions to . . .
10.
Use past
tense for procedures and present tense for
results.
11.
It
is
a
good
idea
to
write
this
section
last
(after
all
of the
other sections are written). You might try
taking
the
lead
sentences
from
the
various
sections
of
the
manuscript and integrating them.
12.
Introduction
1.
The
introduction begins on Page 3.
2.
Start
this
page
by
retyping
your
title
(centered),
then
begin typing the
section (on the next double spaced
line) using normal (5 space indented)
paragraphs. Do
not type the word
Introduction.
3.
The
main
purpose
of
this
section
is
to
tell
the
reader
why
you performed the study. In other words, you have
to inform the reader of the research
question and
indicate
why
it
is
important,
and
how
it
is
unique
when
compared to previous studies.
4.
It
starts
out
broad
and
becomes
more
and
more
specific.
For example, you
might begin by defining any relevant
terms. Then go on to review the
relevant literature.
Avoid an
exhaustive and historical review. Then go on
to
make
clear
the
connection
between
previous
research
and the present
work.
5.
You
might
include
any
hypotheses
and
the
rationale
for
them.
D.
The
final
paragraph
usually
contains
a
statement
which
clearly and explicitly states why the
study was
performed,
such
as
The
purpose
of
this
study
was
to...
or
The
present
study
was
designed
to
investigate
the...
Be
especially
careful
not
to
use
a
sentence
of
this
type
earlier in your
introduction.
7.
Thus,
this
section
should
contain
an
absolute
minimum
of four paragraphs: the general
introduction, the
literature
review,
the
connection
of
the
present
study
to
the literature and the explicit statement of
purpose.
Methods
1.
Do not
purposely start a new page for this section.
Simply center the word Method and
continue typing on
the very next
double-spaced line (i.e., do not insert
any extra blank lines here).
2.
The purpose of
this section is to describe in detail
how
you
performed
the
study.
Someone
should
be
able
to
replicate
your study based on the information you
provide in this section.
3.
Make it sound
professional, that is, do not make it
sound
like
a
class
project.
Assume
you
are
writing
for
submission to a scientific journal.
4.
Avoid
unnecessary
details
like
the
data
were
displayed
on
the computer screen and recorded on the data
sheet(s). This is similar to the empty
word problem
described in
I.C.6.
5.
For an
experiment, this section is typically divided
into four subsections: subjects,
apparatus, design,
and procedure. The
order of design followed by
procedure
is
arbitrary.
In
other
words,
you
could
have
the
procedure come before the design. Sometimes
researchers
combine
the
design
and
procedure
sections,
however, in an experimental psychology
or research
methods
class,
a
separate
design
section
is
typically
required.
6.
For
a
survey
study
(i.e.,
one
in
which
the
participants
are simply
asked a set of questions), the design
section
is
not
necessary
(and
the
survey
itself
may
be
included
as an appendix).
6.
Subjects/Participants
7.
8.
9.
10.
This section is labeled as subjects or
participants
depending
on
whether
animals
or
humans
are
used
in
the
study. If animals are used, use the
term subjects. If
humans are used, use
the term participants.
Do
not
purposely
start
a
new
page
for
this
section.
Type
the
appropriate title for this subsection flush with
the left margin and italicize it. On
the next line,
begin typing normal
paragraphs.
Indicate who participated
in the study, how many, and
how were
they selected. With human subjects, be sure
to address the issue of informed
consent.
Include any details which are
relevant to the study.
For
animals,
include the
gender,
age,
strain,
weight.
For humans, include the gender, age,
race/ethnicity,
and, when appropriate,
the socioeconomic status,
disability
status, sexual orientation, etc. If the
subjects
were
human,
what
type
of
reward
or
motivation
was used to
encourage them to participate?
Apparatus
11.
Do
not
purposely
start
a
new
page
for
this
section.
Type
the
word Apparatus flush with the left margin and
italicize it. On the next line, begin
typing normal
paragraphs.
Describe what materials were used and
how they
functioned in the study.
If
you
use
a
piece
of
equipment,
you
must
give
the
model
number, company, and
state where the company resides
(as a
two-letter abbreviation).
You must
give the dimensions (and perhaps other
descriptive
details)
of
any
important
items
used
in
the
study.
Standard equipment such as furniture,
stopwatches,
pencils and paper, can
usually be mentioned without
providing
a lot of details. In fact, you may often
simply mention these items in passing
as part of the
procedure.
Be
careful
not
to
describe
procedures
in
this
section.
You
should
make
clear
what
purpose
the
apparatus
served,
but do not give a lot of details on the
use of the
apparatus
at
this
point.
One
hint
in
this
regard
is
to
avoid using action verbs in this
section.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Design
17.
18.
19.
20.
Do
not
purposely
start
a
new
page
for
this
section.
Type
the
word Design flush with the left margin and
italicize it. On the next line, begin
typing normal
paragraphs.
Describe the design and clearly spell
out the
independent
and
dependent
variables.
Indicate
what
the
levels
of
the
independent
variables
were,
and
whether
the
factor(s)
were
repeated,
matched,
or
independent.
Describe how
the subjects were assigned to groups.
Describe any control procedures used.
Procedure
21.
Do
not
purposely
start
a
new
page
for
this
section.
Type
the
word Procedure flush with the left margin and
italicize it. On the next line, begin
typing normal
paragraphs.
22.
Carefully
summarize each step in the execution of the
study.
23.
Indicate what a typical test, trial, or
session
involved.
24.
Describe any
phases that the study had or any
instructions that the subjects
received.
25.
When
referring
to
groups,
try
to
use
descriptive
labels.
For example, instead
of saying Group 1 or the
experimental
group, you might say the drugged group.
Another technique in this regard is to
use
abbreviations that emphasize
meaning. For example,
There
were
three
groups,
including,
the
control
group
which received 0 mg/kg of morphine
(M0), a low dose
group receiving 1
mg/kg of morphine (M1), and a high
dose
group receiving 4 mg/kg of morphine (M4).
Results
1.
Do not
purposely start a new page for this section.
Simply center the word Results and
continue typing on
the very next
double-spaced line (i.e., do not insert
any extra blank lines here).
2.
Look
carefully
at
the
results.
That
is,
take
a
good
hard
look at all those
numbers you collect. Think of
different
ways to summarize them (describe), as well
as to make sense of them (analyze). You
might find my
Psychological Statistics
Site
helpful. This section
will be easier to write if you make any
tables and/or
figures you intend to use
first.
E.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Briefly state
the main findings in words. That is,
first give a general description, then
go into the
details.
When
presenting
the
results
of
statistical
tests,
give
descriptive statistics
before the corresponding
inferential
statistics. In other words, give means
and/or percentages (perhaps referring
to a table or
figure), before talking
about the results of any
statistical
tests you performed.
When presenting
means, it is reasonable to use one
additional
digit
of
accuracy
than
what
is
contained
in
the
raw
data.
In
other
words,
if
the
raw
data
consisted
of whole numbers,
then the means should contain one
decimal place.
When
presenting nominal or ordinal data, give the
percents rather than frequencies (since
percents are
independent of the sample
size).
The general format for
presenting an inferential
statistic is:
Statistic
(df) = value,
probability
=
value. Note that exact p values are
preferred. Also,
if the computer output
says the probability is .0000,
then
report it as .001.
When possible,
include some statistical estimate of
effect size.
When
actually
presenting
the
results,
try
to
emphasize
the
meaning of the statistics. That is, clearly
describe what it is you are testing and
what
significance means for the
variables involved.
See
some examples
of the correct
way to present the
results of several
common statistical tests.
Do
not
discuss
the
implications
of
the
results
in
this
section.
Do
not
talk
about
the
meaning
of
the
alpha
level
or
the
null
hypothesis, and what chance factors have to do
with it. Since you are writing for the
scientific
community, you can assume
the reader will have a
working
knowledge of statistics.
If you are
presenting a lot of material here, you may
wish to employ subheadings (as is done
in the methods
section). These
subheadings should have meaning and
relevance
to
the
data
and
should
help
to
organize
your
presentation
of
it.
In
other
words,
they
should
not
be
organized
by
the
type
of
analysis
employed.
Since
this
is not
expected by the reader, it is a good idea to