商业英语考点汇总

command(

指挥系统

;

< br>命令链

;

指挥链

),

which

identifies

the

job

positions

to

which

all

types

of

employees

must

report.

The

chain

of

command

also indicates who is responsible for various activities.

Top management determines the firm's span of control (

控制跨度

;

管理宽度

), or the

number of employees managed by each manager. When an organizational structure is

designed so that each manager supervises just a few employees, it has a narrow

span of control. Conversely, when it is designed so that each manager supervises

numerous employees, it has a wide span of control.

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Sole Proprietorship

独资（经营）

A business owned by a single owner is referred to as a sole proprietorship. The

owner of a sole proprietorship is called a sole proprietor. A sole proprietor may

obtain

loans

from

creditors

to

help

finance

the

firm

’

s

operations,

but

these

loans

do

not

represent

ownership.

The

sole

proprietor

is

obligated

to

cover

any

payments

resulting from the loans but does not need to share the business profits with

creditors.

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Competition

Each

business

has

a

market

share,

which

represents

its

sales

volume

as

a

percentage

of the total sales in a specific market.

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Partnership

合营公司

/

合伙企业

A business that is co-owned by two or more people is referred to as a partnership.

The co-owners of the business are called partners.

In a general partnership

（普通合伙）

, all partners have unlimited liability. That

is, the partners are personally liable for all obligations of the firm.

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Limited Liability Company (LLC)

有限责任公司

An LLC has all the favorable features of a typical general partnership but also

offers limited liability for the partners. It typically protects a partner

’

s

personal assets from the negligence of other partners in the firm.

An LLC is not a corporation; it is a legal form of company that provides limited

liability to its owners.

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The job specification (

任职资格

) states the credentials necessary to qualify for

the job position.

The job description (

职位描述

) states the tasks and responsibilities of the job

position.

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11

Internal versus External Recruiting

Internal recruiting seeks to fill open positions with persons already employed

by

the

firm.

Internal

recruiting

can

be

beneficial

because

existing

employees

have

already

been

proven.

Their

personalities

are

known,

and

their

potential

capabilities

and

limitations

can

be

thoroughly

assessed.

Internal

recruiting

also

allows

existing

workers to receive a promotion or to switch to more desirable tasks.

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External recruiting is an effort to fill positions with applicants from outside

the firm.

Many firms recruit by hosting job fairs

（招聘会）

, such as this one hosted by

Microsoft Corp.

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Open-book Management

开卷管理

Another form of employee involvement is open- book management, which educates

employees

on

their

contribution

to

the

firm

and

enables

them

to

periodically

assess

their own performance levels. Open-book management educates employees on how they

affect the key performance measures that are relevant for the firm

’

s owners. In

this way, it encourages employees to make decisions and conduct tasks as if they

were the firm

’

s owners.

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Gantt chart

甘特图表

One

method

of

scheduling

tasks

for

a

special

project

is

to

use

a

Gantt

chart,

which

illustrates

the

expected

timing

for

each

task

within

the

production

process.

Assume

that a chemical firm must produce 500 one-gallon containers of Chemical Z for a

manufacturer.

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Economies of scale

规模经济

Firms

may

also

be

able

to

reduce

costs

by

achieving

economies

of

scale,

which

reflect

a lower average cost incurred from producing a larger volume. Consider that two

types

of

costs

are

involved

in

the

production

of

a

product:

fixed

costs

and

variable

costs. Fixed costs are operating expenses that do not change in response to the

number of products produced. For example, the cost of renting a specific factory

is not affected by the number of products produced there.

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Product Characteristics

Product differentiation

（产品差异化）

is the effort of a firm to distinguish its

product

from

competitors

’

products

in

a

manner

that

makes

the

product

more

desirable.

Some products are differentiated from competing products by their quality. For

example,

Starbucks

coffee

has

become

popular

in

China

because

of

its

quality,

even

though its price is high.

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Direct Channel

直接渠道

A

producer

of

a

product

deals

directly

with

customers,

and

marketing

intermediaries

are not involved. This situation is called a direct channel.

The advantage of a direct channel is that the full difference between the

manufacturer

’

s cost and the price paid by the

consumer goes to

the producer.

When

manufacturers sell directly to customers, they have full control over the price

to be charged to the consumer.

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One-Level Channel

一级分销渠道

In a one-level channel, one marketing intermediary is between the producer and

the customer. Some marketing intermediaries (called merchants) become owners of

the products and then resell them. For example, wholesalers act as merchants by

purchasing products in bulk and reselling them to customers.

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选择

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Managerial leadership styles

Styles can be classified generally as autocratic, free- rein, or participative.

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Managers

who

use

an

autocratic

leadership

style

retain

full

authority

for

decision

making; employees have little or no input. For example, if managers believe that

one of their manufacturing plants will continue to incur losses, they may decide

to close the plant without asking for input from the plant's workers. Autocratic

managers may believe that employees cannot offer input that would contribute to

a given decision.

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cost-push inflation

成本推动型通货膨胀

Cost-push

inflation

is

the

situation

when

higher

prices

charged

by

firms

are

caused

by

higher

costs.

When

the

price

of

aluminum

rises,

for

example,

firms

such

as

PepsiCo

and Coca-Cola incur higher costs and

may increase the prices

of their soft drinks.

If

the

cost

of

steel

increases,

firms

such

as

General

Motors

and

Ford

Motor

Company

that use steel to produce vehicles may increase the prices of their vehicles.

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demand-pull inflation

需求拉动式通胀

Inflation can also be caused by strong consumer demand. Consider a situation in

which consumers increase their demand for most products and services. Some firms

may respond by increasing their prices. When prices of products and services are

pulled up because of strong consumer demand, demand-pull inflation occurs. In

periods of strong economic growth, strong consumer demand can cause shortages in

the production of some products. Firms that anticipate shortages may raise prices

because they are confident they can sell the products anyway.

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Assessing Market Conditions

Demand

Competition

Labor conditions

Regulatory conditions

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市场细分

Each market has segments, or subsets that reflect a specific type of business and

the perceived quality. Thus, a market can be narrowly defined by type of business

and quality. Segmenting the market in this way allows a firm to identify its main

competitors so that they can be assessed.

customers

quality

（汽车市场）

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Using SWOT Analysis to Develop a Competitive Advantage

Entrepreneurs commonly use SWOT analysis to develop a competitive advantage. The

acronym SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. Thus,

a new business can use SWOT analysis to assess its own strengths (such as a lower

price or higher quality) and weaknesses, as well as the external opportunities

and threats it faces.

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Advantages of a Sole Proprietorship

1.

All Earnings Go to the Sole Proprietor

2. Easy Organization

3.

Complete Control

Having only one owner with complete control of the firm eliminates the chance

of conflicts during the decision-making process. For example, an owner of a

restaurant

can decide on the menu, the prices,

and the salaries paid to

employees.

4.

Lower Taxes

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Disadvantages of a Sole Proprietorship

1.

The Sole Proprietor Incurs All Losses

Just

as

sole

proprietors

do

not

have

to

share

the

profits,

they

are

unable

to

share

any losses that the firm incurs.

2.

Unlimited

Liability:

A

sole

proprietor

is

subject

to

unlimited

liability,

which

means there is no limit on the debts for which the owner is liable.

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3.

Limited Funds

A sole proprietor may have limited funds available to invest in the firm. Thus,

sole

proprietors

have

difficulty

engaging

in

airplane

manufacturing,

shipbuilding,

computer manufacturing, and other businesses that require substantial funds.

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4.

Limited Skills

A sole proprietor has limited skills and may be unable to control all parts of

the business. For example, a sole proprietor may have difficulty running a large

medical practice(

医疗服务

) because different types of expertise may be needed.

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A

limited

partnership

has

one

or

more

general

partners

（一般合伙人

）

,

or

partners

who

manage

the

business,

receive

a

salary,

share

the

profits

or

losses

of

the

business,

and have unlimited liability.

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Advantages of a Partnership

1. Additional Funding

2.

Losses

Are

Shared

：

Any

business

losses

that

the

partnership

incurs

are

spread

across all of the partners.

3.

More

Specialization

：

With

a

partnership,

partners

can

focus

on

their

respective

specializations and serve a wide variety of customers. For example, an accounting

firm may have one accountant who specializes in personal taxes for individuals

and another who specializes in business taxes for firms.

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Disadvantages of a Partnership

1.

Control Is Shared

2.

Unlimited

Liability:

General

partners

in

a

partnership

are

subject

to

unlimited

liability, just like sole proprietors.

3.

Profits Are Shared: Any profits that the partnership generates must be shared

among all partners.

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Many firms that are able to use a wide span of control tend to have a flat

organizational

structure

because

they

do

not

require

many

layers.

Conversely,

firms

that

need

to

use

a

narrow

span

of

control

tend

to

have

a

tall

organizational

structure

with many layers.

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They tend to be well rewarded when the firm performs well, but they must also be

held

accountable

if

the

firm

has

major

problems.

The

board

of

directors,

an

internal

auditor, and an internal control process can ensure that firms achieve

accountability in the organizational structure.

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内部董事和外部董事

Board

members

who

are

also

managers

of

the

same

firm

(such

as

the

CEO)

are

referred

to as inside board members. Board members who are not managers of the firm are

referred to as outside board members. Some firms, including General Electric and