Grammar语法的定义

Grammar

For the rules of the English language, see English grammar. For

the topic in mathematics, logic, and theoretical computer science,

see Formal grammar.

Not to be confused with Grammer or Krammer.

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In linguistics, grammar is the set of structural rules that governs

the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in any given natural

language. The term refers also to the study of such rules, and this

field includes morphology, syntax, and phonology, often

complemented by phonetics, semantics, and pragmatics. Linguists

do not normally use the term to refer to orthographical rules,

although usage books and style guides that call themselves

grammars may also refer to spelling and punctuation.[citation

needed]

Contents [hide]

1 Use of the term

2 Etymology

3 History

4 Development of grammars

5 Grammar frameworks

6 Education

7 See also

8 Notes and references

9 External links

[edit] Use of the termThe term grammar is often used by

non-linguists with a very broad meaning. As Jeremy Butterfield puts

it:

English that people object to.

more specific sense. Speakers of a language have in their heads a set

of rules[2] for using that language. This is a grammar, and

—

at least

in the case of one's native language

—

the vast majority of the

information in it is acquired not by conscious study or instruction,

but by observing other speakers; much of this work is done during

infancy. Language learning later in life, of course, may involve a

greater degree of explicit instruction.[3]

The term

govern the linguistic behaviour of a group of speakers. The term

refer to the whole of English grammar

—

that is, to the grammars of

all the speakers of the language

—

in which case, the term

encompasses a great deal of variation.[4] Alternatively, it may refer

only to what is common to the grammars of all, or of the vast

majority of English speakers (such as subject

–

–

object word

order in simple declarative sentences). Or it may refer to the rules of

a particular, relatively well-defined variety of English (such as

Standard English).

of such rules. A reference book describing the grammar of a

language is called a

fully explicit grammar that exhaustively describes the grammatical

constructions of a language is called a descriptive grammar. This

kind of linguistic description contrasts with linguistic prescription,

an attempt to discourage or suppress some grammatical

constructions, while promoting others. For example, preposition

stranding occurs widely in Germanic languages and has a long

history in English. John Dryden, however, objected to it (without

explanation),[5] leading other English speakers to avoid the

construction and discourage its use.[6]

[edit] EtymologyFurther information: Grapheme

The word grammar derives from Greek γραμματικ

?

τ?χνη

(grammatikē technē), which means

(gramma),

write

[edit] HistoryFurther information: History of linguistics

The first systematic grammars originated in Iron Age India, with

Yaska (6th c. BC), Pā

?

ini (4th c. BC) and his commentators Pingala

(ca. 200 BC), Katyayana, and Patanjali (2nd c. BC). In the West,

grammar emerged as a discipline in Hellenism from the 3rd c. BC

forward with authors like Rhyanus and Aristarchus of Samothrace,

the oldest extant work being the Art of Grammar (Τ?χνη

Γραμματικ?), attributed to Dionysius Thrax (ca. 100 BC). Latin

grammar developed by following Greek models from the 1st century

BC, due to the work of authors such as Orbilius Pupillus, Remmius

Palaemon, Marcus Valerius Probus, Verrius Flaccus, and Aemilius

Asper.

Tolkāppiyam is the earliest Tamil grammar; it has been dated

variously between 1st CE and 10th CE.

A grammar of Irish originated in the 7th century with the

Auraicept na n-?

ces.

Arabic grammar emerged with Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali from the

7th century who in-turn was taught the discipline by Ali ibn Abi

talib, the fourth historical caliph of Islam and first Imam for Shi'i

Muslims.

The first treatises on Hebrew grammar appeared in the High

Middle Ages, in the context of Mishnah (exegesis of the Hebrew

Bible). The Karaite tradition originated in Abbasid Baghdad. The

Diqduq (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical

commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.[8] Ibn Barun in the 12th century

compares the Hebrew language with Arabic in the Islamic

grammatical tradition.[9]

Belonging to the trivium of the seven liberal arts, grammar was

taught as a core discipline throughout the Middle Ages, following

the influence of authors from Late Antiquity, such as Priscian.

Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the High Middle

Ages, with isolated works such as the First Grammatical Treatise,

but became influential only in the Renaissance and Baroque periods.

In 1486, Antonio de Nebrija published Las introduciones Latinas

contrapuesto el romance al Latin, and the first Spanish grammar,

Gramá

tica de la lengua castellana, in 1492. During the 16th century

Italian Renaissance, the Questione della lingua was the discussion on

the status and ideal form of the Italian language, initiated by Dante's

de vulgari eloquentia (Pietro Bembo, Prose della volgar lingua

Venice 1525). The first grammar of Slovene language was written in

1584 by Adam Bohori?.

Grammars of non-European languages began to be compiled for

the purposes of evangelization and Bible translation from the 16th

century onward, such as Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de

los Indios de los Reynos del Perú

(1560), and a Quechua grammar

by Fray Domingo de Santo Tomá

s.

In 1643 there appeared Ivan Uzhevych's Grammatica sclavonica

and, in 1762, the Short Introduction to English Grammar of Robert

Lowth was also published. The Grammatisch-Kritisches W?

rterbuch

der hochdeutschen Mundart, a High German grammar in five

volumes by Johann Christoph Adelung, appeared as early as 1774.

From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be

understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern

linguistics. The Serbian grammar by Vuk S

tefanovi? Karad?i?

arrived in 1814, while the Deutsche Grammatik of the Brothers

Grimm was first published in 1818. The Comparative Grammar of

Franz Bopp, the starting point of modern comparative linguistics,

came out in 1833.

[edit] Development of grammarsMain article: Historical

linguistics

Grammars evolve through usage and also due to separations of

the human population. With the advent of written representations,

formal rules about language usage tend to appear also. Formal

grammars are codifications of usage that are developed by repeated

documentation over time, and by observation as well. As the rules

become established and developed, the prescriptive concept of

grammatical correctness can arise. This often creates a discrepancy

between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted, over

time, as being correct. Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammars

as having little justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes,

although style guides may give useful advice about standard

language employment, based on descriptions of usage in

contemporary writings of the same language. Linguistic

prescriptions also form part of the explanation for variation in

speech, particularly variation in the speech of an individual speaker

(an explanation, for example, for why some people say,